East-central South Dakota Research Articles

Distribution and Population Density of Jackrabbits in South Dakota

Distribution of white-tailed jackrabbit ( Lepus townsendii ) and black-tailed jackrabbit ( L. californicus ) populations have been thought to be shifting throughout the Northern Great Plains. Anecdotal reports of population declines of white-tailed jackrabbits in recent years have created concern for wildlife managers. We established 21 spotlight line transects (64.4 km) across South Dakota to evaluate jackrabbit distribution as well as to facilitate future survey efforts. We conducted surveys during 2004 and 2005 to obtain baseline information about jackrabbit distribution and population density throughout the state. We observed white-tailed jackrabbits throughout the state, and estimated the highest population density in the northwestern part of the state and lowest in east-central South Dakota. We only observed black-tailed jackrabbits at very low densities in south-central South Dakota in Tripp and Gregory Counties.

Growing Spartina pectinata in Previously Farmed Prairie Wetlands for Economic and Ecological Benefits

Wetlands in the Prairie Pothole Region of the U.S. are threatened by continued drainage and conversion to cropland. Commercial incentives may increase wetland restoration in lieu of easements. Therefore, we evaluated two commercially available populations of prairie cordgrass (Spartina pectinata Link) by comparing two planting techniques and identifying zones of maximum plant vigor and biomass production along a wetland-upland environmental gradient of a restored temporary wetland in east-central South Dakota. In the wetland center (maximum water depth: 0.4–0.5 m) plants were effectively established by transplanting, but not by drilling. Both techniques were effective above the wetland center. The zone of maximum vigor varied by year, ranging from the wetland bottom (0.5-m maximum water depth) to 0.25 m above the wetland-upland boundary. Biomass yield did not differ between populations but was affected by elevation. In a second experiment, 2 years after establishing plants by transplanting at 0.9- or 1.5-m spacing, biomass no longer differed between treatments. Our economic analysis indicated establishment costs could be recovered with < 10 years of biomass and seed harvests. Because prairie cordgrass can be established using conventional techniques and provides positive net revenue, it should be considered for incorporation into shallow wetlands in production fields.

Spring Clipping, Fire, and Simulated Increased Atmospheric Nitrogen Deposition Effects on Tallgrass Prairie Vegetation

Defoliation aimed at introduced cool-season grasses, which uses similar resources of native grasses, could substantially reduce their competitiveness and improve the quality of the northern tallgrass prairie. The objective was to evaluate the use of early season clipping and fire in conjunction with simulated increased levels of atmospheric nitrogen deposition on foliar canopy cover of tallgrass prairie vegetation. This study was conducted from 2009 to 2012 at two locations in eastern South Dakota. Small plots arranged in a split-plot treatment design were randomized in four complete blocks on a warm-season grass interseeded and a native prairie site in east-central South Dakota. The whole plot consisted of seven treatments: annual clip, biennial clip, triennial clip, annual fire, biennial fire, triennial fire, and undefoliated control. The clip plots consisted of weekly clipping in May to simulate heavy grazing. Fire was applied in late April or early May. The subplot consisted of nitrogen applied at 0 or 15 kg N · ha−1 in early June. All treatments were initially applied in 2009. Biennial and triennial treatments were reapplied in 2011 and 2012, respectively. Canopy cover of species/major plant functional groups was estimated in late August/early September. Annual clipping was just as effective as annual fire in increasing native warm-season grass and decreasing introduced cool-season grass cover. Annual defoliation resulted in greater native warm-season grass cover, less introduced cool-season grass cover, and less native cool-season grass cover than biennial or triennial defoliation applications. Low levels of nitrogen did not affect native warm-season grass or introduced cool-season cover for any of the defoliation treatments, but it increased introduced cool-season grass cover in the undefoliated control at the native prairie site. This study supports the hypothesis that appropriately applied management results in consistent desired outcomes regardless of increased simulated atmospheric nitrogen depositions.

Economic analysis of private and public benefits of corn, switchgrass and mixed grass systems in Eastern South Dakota

AbstractThe objective of this research is to develop an economic analysis of different crop mix biofuels programs for meeting ethanol and sustainability demands. Primary data are from South Dakota State University field experiments on farms located in east-central South Dakota. The data include 4 years of field data, three crop systems (mixed grass, switchgrass and corn), two residue treatments (no removal, removal of biomass), and three landscape positions (back slope, crest and foot slope). A representative farm model and five scenarios are developed to conduct a full budget analysis over a 12-year period. Public benefits are evaluated, using the benefit transfer method to value ecosystem services, by allocating a dollar value to three environmental variables; carbon sequestration, reduction of sedimentation and pheasant production. Stochastic simulation results are compared for each of the five scenarios, one with only annualized net private returns, and one including the value of environmental benefits. Results indicate that: (1) the conventional continuous corn scenario has the highest net returns over the 12-year budget, (2) carbon sequestration represents 80% of the environmental benefits, and (3) the added economic value of ecosystem services does not provide enough incentives for farmers to convert from corn production to grass production.

Assessing the Value of Using a Remote Sensing-Based Evapotranspiration Map in Site-Specific Management

ABSTRACT In the glaciated regions of the northern Great Plains, water - either too much or too little - influences soil development, carbon storage, and plant productivity. Integrating site-specific water variability information directly into management is difficult. Simulation models that employ remotely sensed data can generate hard to measure values such as evapotranspiration (ET). This information can be used to identify management zones. The objective of this study was to determine if the METRIC (Mapping Evapotranspiration at High Resolution and with Internalized Calibration) model, which uses weather station and remote sensing data can be used as a tool in site-specific management. This study was conducted on a 65 ha corn (Zea mays L.) field located in east central South Dakota. The METRIC model used Landsat 7 data collected on August 4, 2001 to calculate ET values with spatial resolution of 30 m. ET values were correlated with corn yield (r = 0.85**), apparent electrical conductivity (ECa; r = 0.71**), soil organic carbon (SOC; r = 0.32*), and pH (r = 0.28*). In the footslope positions, high ET values were associated with high corn yields, SOC, EC a , and pH values, while in the summit/shoulder areas low ET values were associated with low yields, SOC, ECa, and pH values. The strong relationship between ET and productivity was attributed to landscape processes that influenced plant available water, which in turn influenced productivity. Cluster analysis of the ET and EC data showed that these data bases complimented each other. Remote sensing-based ET data was most successful in identifying areas where water stress reduced corn yields, while ECa was most successful in identifying high yielding management zones. Findings from this study suggest that remote sensing-based ET estimates can be used to improve management zone delineation.

Soil carbon dioxide fluxes in established switchgrass land managed for biomass production

Switchgrass ( Panicum virgatum L.) grown for biomass feedstock production has the potential to increase soil C sequestration, and soil CO 2 flux in grassland is an important component in the global C budget. The objectives of this study were to: (1) determine the effects of N fertilization and harvest frequency on soil CO 2 flux, soil microbial biomass carbon (SMBC), and potentially mineralizable carbon (PMC); and (2) evaluate the relationship of soil CO 2 flux with soil temperature, soil moisture, SMBC, and PMC. Two N rates (0 and 224 kg ha −1) were applied as NH 4NO 3 and cattle ( Bos Taurus L.) manure. Switchgrass was harvested every year at anthesis or alternate years at anthesis. The data were collected during growing season (May–October) 2001–2004 on switchgrass-dominated Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) land in east-central South Dakota, USA. Manure application increased soil CO 2 flux, SMBC, and PMC during the early portion of the growing season compared with the control, but NH 4NO 3 application did not affect soil CO 2 flux, SMBC, and PMC. However, seasonal variability of soil CO 2 flux was not related to SMBC and PMC. Estimated average soil CO 2 fluxes during the growing periods were 472, 488, and 706 g CO 2–C m −2 for control, NH 4NO 3–N, and manure-N plots, respectively. Switchgrass land with manure application emitted more CO 2, and approximately 45% of the C added with manure was respired to the atmosphere. Switchgrass harvested at anthesis decreased soil CO 2 flux during the latter part of the growing season, and flux was lower under every year harvest treatment than under alternate years harvest. Soil temperature was the most significant single variable to explain the variability in soil CO 2 flux. Soil water content was not a limiting factor in controlling seasonal CO 2 flux.

Influence of weather extremes on the water levels of glaciated prairie wetlands

Abstract Orchid Meadows is a long-term wetland research and monitoring site on the Coteau des Prairie in extreme east-central South Dakota, USA. It is a 65-ha Waterfowl Production Area with numerous temporary, seasonal, and semi-permanent wetlands. Ground water and surface water have been monitored at the site from 1987 to 1989 and from 1993 to the present. Vegetation has been monitored since 1993. The monitoring record includes two nearly back-to-back weather extremes: a drought in the late 1980s and a deluge in the early- to mid-1990s. Wetlands differed sharply in water levels between 3-yr dry and wet periods. For example, the time of inundation ranged among semi-permanent wetlands from 13 to 71 percent during the dry years to 100 percent during the wet years, while for seasonal wetlands, it was 0–29 percent and 46–100 percent, respectively, during dry and wet periods. Temporary wetlands had no surface water during the dry period but had standing water 0–67 percent of the time during the deluge years. T...

IKONOS geometric characterization

The IKONOS spacecraft acquired images on July 3, 17, and 25, and August 13, 2001 of Brookings SD, a small city in east central South Dakota, and on May 22, June 30, and July 30, 2000, of the rural area around the EROS Data Center. South Dakota State University (SDSU) evaluated the Brookings scenes and the USGS EROS Data Center (EDC) evaluated the other scenes. The images evaluated by SDSU utilized various natural objects and man-made features as identifiable targets randomly distribution throughout the scenes, while the images evaluated by EDC utilized pre-marked artificial points (panel points) to provide the best possible targets distributed in a grid pattern. Space Imaging provided products at different processing levels to each institution. For each scene, the pixel (line, sample) locations of the various targets were compared to field observed, survey-grade Global Positioning System locations. Patterns of error distribution for each product were plotted, and a variety of statistical statements of accuracy are made. The IKONOS sensor also acquired 12 pairs of stereo images of globally distributed scenes between April 2000 and April 2001. For each scene, analysts at the National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA) compared derived photogrammetric coordinates to their corresponding NIMA field-surveyed ground control point (GCPs). NIMA analysts determined horizontal and vertical accuracies by averaging the differences between the derived photogrammetric points and the field-surveyed GCPs for all 12 stereo pairs. Patterns of error distribution for each scene are presented.

Reduction–Oxidation Effects on Soil Potassium and Plant Uptake

Potassium ions (K+) may become “fixed” between adjacent phyllosilicate layers under waterlogged conditions, rendering K less available to plant uptake. This phenomenon was investigated under greenhouse conditions to determine if K fixation due to biogeochemical reduction contributed to the K deficiency in corn (Zea mays L.) in the northern Great Plains (South Dakota). The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of a single reduction–oxidation (redox) event on soil K fractions and plant K uptake in montmorillonitic soils. Surface soil (Udolls, 0–15 cm) was collected from various sites across east-central South Dakota and used in a completely randomized greenhouse pot study ( 2×4 factorial). Reduced (Re) and reduced/reoxidized (Re/Ox) treatments were established, and corn was grown to the V5 stage of growth in a two cropping sequence. Potassium levels among soil K fractions did not significantly change upon the redox event. Dry matter (DM) yields were not significantly affected by the redox event. Cumulative K-uptake ranged from 25.7 to 33.2 mg K (kg soil−1), and there were no significant differences between treatments. No increase in K fixation was observed as the result of a single reduction–oxidation event. A single redox event does not cause K fixation in four montmorillonitic soils studied under greenhouse conditions.

Plant available potassium assessment through chemical prediction methods

Understanding factors that affect the potassium (K) status of soil is important to chemical prediction of plant-available K in corn (Zea mays L.). Soils vary widely in their ability to replenish labile K from nonlabile forms. No research has been done to investigate the effects clay fraction mineralogy of South Dakota soils have on the efficacy of chemical prediction methods. The objectives of this study were to (i) evaluate the ability of 1.0 M NH4OAc-extractable soil K test and other common chemical extractants to predict plant-available K, and (ii) relate clay fraction mineralogy to chemical prediction of tissue K concentration. Composite soil surface samples (0–15 cm) and corn tissue samples were collected from eight different corn production field sites across east-central South Dakota. Plants grown at these sites either exhibited or did not exhibit K deficiency symptoms. Soils were extracted and plant-available K was determined by four common procedures. X-ray diffraction and total colloidal CEC analyses were also determined for all soils using standard procedures. When exchangeable Ca2+ and Mg2+ were included in the prediction model, NH4OAc- and CaCl2-extractable K+ explained 80 and 85% of the variation in plant K concentration, respectively. The NH4OAc and CaCl2 methods proved superior to NaBPh4 5- and 15-minute extraction in estimating plant K availability. Since the clay fraction mineralogy of the soils in this study was montmorillonite, there was no advantage to using the NaBPh4 method to estimate plant K concentration.

Avian use of rice-baited corn stubble in east-central South Dakota

Blackbirds (Icteridae) cause substantial damage to ripening sunflower ( Helianthus annus) in the northern Great Plains. One management option to reduce damage is to bait spring-migrating blackbirds with the compound DRC-1339 (3-chloro- p-toluidine hydrochloride). In March and April 1994 and 95, we evaluated nontarget risks associated with use of DRC-1339-treated rice baits broadcast in fields of corn stubble in east-central South Dakota. In 1994, we counted 159 nontarget birds during 105 15-min observations in rice-baited and unbaited plots. In 1995, 178 nontarget birds were recorded during 816 1-min periods. We detected no difference in granivorous bird abundance between rice-baited and unbaited plots in either year ( P's ⩾0.05). Of the 15 identified nontarget species, meadowlarks ( Sturnella spp.) and ring-necked pheasants ( Phasianus colchicus) probably are most at risk because of their high susceptibility to DRC-1339. Prebaiting blackbirds into small plots placed away from field edges and diluting bait with untreated rice might mitigate nontarget losses.

SURVIVAL OF AVIAN CARCASSES AND PHOTOGRAPHIC EVIDENCE OF PREDATORS AND SCAVENGERS

Abstract Scavenging of carcasses may bias estimates of mortality following the use of pesticides. To assess carcass survival, we monitored bird carcasses in crop stubble, grassland, roadside, and wooded habitats in east-central South Dakota in early spring. Survival rates differed among habitat types in 1997 but not in 1998. Survival rates did not differ among species of carcass in 1997 or 1998. Within 5 d, 66% of carcasses had been scavenged in both 1997 and 1998. To assess potential hazards of secondary poisoning, we used infrared-triggered camera systems to identify predators and scavengers of live birds and bird carcasses. Mammals (n = 164), particularly striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis) (n = 105), were the most commonly photographed predators and scavengers. The number of avian predators and scavengers photographed (n = 39) was relatively low. Because scavenger activity can be high, we recommend that searches for carcasses should be conducted within 24 h of pesticide application to ensure accurate e...

Corn and Sorghum as a Winter Food Source for Ring-Necked Pheasants

In many localities, winter food plots planted to corn and/or sorghum grains are used to enhance overwinter survival of ring-necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus). We used organ size and carcass composition to evaluate this strategy with 110 pen-reared, female ring-necked pheasants fed ad libitum or restricted (65, 85, and 100% of a 173 kcal.bird -1 day -1 maintenance ratio [MR]) corn, sorghum, or corn/sorghum (mixed) diets in South Dakota during winters 1990-92. We also evaluated 97 wild females collected from areas with corn, sorghum, corn/sorghum (mixed), and areas without (control) food plots in east-central South Dakota. Except for ceca length (P = 0.059), intestinal masses and lengths did not differ (P > 0.10) among pen-reared females fed restricted or ad libitum diets. Females fed 100% MR corn diets were heavier (P ≤ 0.10) and fatter (P ≤ 0.10) than females fed the 100% MR sorghum or mixed diet. Females fed 85% MR sorghum diets were fatter than females fed corn (P = 0.020) or mixed (P = 0.056) diets. Pen-reared females fed 65% MR sorghum diets were heavier than females fed corn (P = 0.017) but not mixed diets (P = 0.133). Wild females collected from control plots had longer (P ≤ 0.10) and heavier (P ≤ 0.10) small intestine and ceca than did females collected from food plots. Females collected from sorghum and control plots contained less (P ≤ 0.10) fat than did females collected from corn or mixed plots. Diets of females from corn and mixed plots were mostly food plot grains, whereas wild foods, soybeans, and corn composed most of the diet of pheasants on sorghum and control plots. Comparisons of the 3 grain diets (corn/sorghum/mixed), with pen-reared females, did not suggest any 1 diet was nutritionally better than another. We postulate wild females feeding within food plots had larger lipid reserves than did females not feeding in food plots because of higher quality diets.

Great Lakes Lumber on the Great Plains: The Laird, Norton Lumber Company in South Dakota

Focusing on the Plains territory of east central South Dakota and the Great Lakes lumber-producing region of Wisconsin's Chippewa Valley, Vogel examines the pattern and process by which lumber reached South Dakota, particularly during the Great Dakota Boom of 1878 to 1887. Annotation copyright Book

Genetic variation in male Yellow-headed Blackbirds from the northern Great Plains

Electrophoretic differences at 15 presumptive loci were used to assess allelic frequencies, heterozygosities, and polymorphism for male Yellow-headed Blackbirds (Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus) collected in east-central Alberta, north-central North Dakota, and east-central South Dakota. Five loci were polymorphic and mean heterozygosities ranged from 0.119 to 0.133. Significant differences were detected among these geographic populations of Yellow-headed Blackbirds, primarily due to differences in the allelic frequencies of isocitrate dehydrogenase and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase. Differences detected were not sufficient to uniquely identify the geographic origin of Yellow-headed Blackbrids.

Oviposition Site Selection of the Northern Corn Rootworm (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Oviposition habits of adult Diabrotica bar-beri Smith & Lawrence were studied in relation to varying sources of vegetative cover during 1986 and 1987 at three locations in east central South Dakota. Treatments included the following: Corn, Zea mays L.; soybeans, Glycine max L.; simulated volunteer oats, Avena sativa L.; a mixture of green and yellow foxtails, Setaria viridis (L.) Beauvois and S. lutescens (Weigel) Hubb.; Common lambsquarters, Chenopodium album L.; redroot pigweed, Amaranthus retroflexus L.; and Pennsylvania smartweed, Polygonum pennsylvanicum L. Sticky trap data indicated the presence of high beetle populations in plot areas during both years. Totals of 3,447, 8,758, and 14,178 D. barberi were captured at Aurora, Rutland, and Wentworth, respectively. Typically, greater numbers of adults were captured in the Corn plots; however, high numbers were also present within all other treatments. Soil sampling conducted before D. barberi oviposition produced overall means of 1.81, 0.23, and 0.06 eggs per 0.47-liter sample at Rutland, Aurora, and Wentworth, respectively, and indicated that negligible numbers of diapausal eggs were present. Egg recovery after oviposition was significantly (P < 0.01) higher in Corn plots than in noncorn plots, thus indicating that cornfields provide the preferred site for D. bar-beri oviposition.

Cage-Rearing Rainbow Trout in Dugout Ponds in Eastern South Dakota

Abstract Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) were reared in cages in dugout farm ponds in eastcentral South Dakota during 1982 and 1983 to determine growth and survival, optimal feeding rate and stocking density, and economic feasibility. Trout had 1.9-4.2% daily weight gains and 93-100% survival. The optimal feeding rate was 3-4% of body weight daily. The high cost of fingerlings ($35/100 for 66-g rainbow trout) was the greatest expense in a hypothetical cage-culture operation, but the study demonstrated that an owner of dugout ponds could economically produce a large weight of acceptably sized rainbow trout in a relatively small cage (about 10 m3) over a short time period.

Efficacy and Economics of Leafy Spurge (Euphorbia esula) Control in Pasture

Herbicide treatments containing the butoxyethanol ester of 2,4-D [(2,4-dichlorophenoxy)acetic acid], the dimethylamine salt of dicamba (3,6-dichloro-o-anisic acid), the potassium salt of picloram (4-amino-3,5,6-trichloropicolinic acid), and the isopropylamine salt of glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine] were applied for 6 yr to a pasture in east-central South Dakota containing leafy spurge (Euphorbia esulaL. ♯ EPHES). Several treatments resulted in leafy spurge control exceeding 90%. Mean herbage dry-weight yield in treated plots was 2340 kg/ha, a 67% increase over untreated plots. Forage yields did not significantly differ among treatments controlling 90% or more leafy spurge. Marginal net return over marginal cost from herbicide treatments ranged from $35 to –$63/ha. Treatments providing satisfactory leafy spurge control with minimum economic risk were annual spring applications of 2,4-D at 1.7 kg ae/ha or dicamba + 2,4-D at 0.6 + 1.1 kg ae/ha and the biannual application of 2,4-D at 0.8 kg ae/ha.

Wind-Solar Combination for Agricultural Use

A study was conducted to evaluate the potential of wind energy and the combination of wind and solar energies for agricultural use. The potential wind and solar energy values for a location in east central South Dakota is used as an example in this study. The intensity and variation of available wind energy are evaluated based on twelve years of weather data. Significant improvement in the uniformity of the energy flux is achieved by combining wind and solar energies.

Effects of ULV Organophosphates on Horn Flies and Face Flies of Cattle, and on the Bovine Coprocoenosis 1

A study in east-central South Dakota during the summers of 1971 and 1972 evaluated insecticidal control of horn and face flies ( Haematobia irritans (L.) and Musca autumnalis De Geer, respectively) on cattle, as well as potential side effects to the insects of the bovine coprocoenosis. Three organophosphate compounds were aerially applied in ULV formulations: Ravap®, a 1:4 mixture of dichlorvos and Rabon® [2-chloro-1- (2,4,5-trichlorophenyl) vinyl dimethyl phosphate)], Rabon, and malathion. All 3 insecticides reduced the number of adult flies of both species for at least 1 day but for less than 1 wk. No residual control was noted. No significant effects to the dung biota could be attributed to Ravap or malathion. Rabon significantly (P=0.01) diminished only numbers of Platystethus americanus Erichson, Falagria dissecta (Erichson), Aphodius fimetarius (L.), and Cercyon pygmaeus Illiger, and, to a lesser degree (P=0.05), a miscellaneous group of unidentified dipterous larvae and larval hydrophilids. Most of the dung fauna, however, were unaffected by the insecticides.