Earlier Views Research Articles

Archaeocytes in sponges: simple cells of complicated fate.

Archaeocytes are considered a key cell type in sponges (Porifera). They are believed to be multifunctional cells performing various functions, from nutrient digestion to acting as adult stem cells (ASCs). Thus, archaeocytes are mentioned in discussions on various aspects of sponge biology. As presumed ASCs of an early-diverged animal taxon, archaeocytes are of great fundamental interest for further progress in understanding tissue functioning in metazoans. However, the term 'archaeocyte' is rather ambiguous in its usage and understanding, and debates surrounding archaeocytes have persisted for over a century, reflecting the ongoing complexity of understanding their nature. This article presents a comprehensive revision of the archaeocyte concept, including both its historical development and biological features (i.e. taxonomic distribution, characteristics, and functions). The term 'archaeocyte' and its central aspects were introduced as early as the end of the 19th century based on data mainly from demosponges. Remarkably, despite the general lack of comparative and non-histological data, these early studies already regarded archaeocytes as the ASCs of sponges. These early views were readily inherited by subsequent studies, often without proper verification, shaping views on many aspects of sponge biology for more than a century. Taking into account all available data, we propose considering the archaeocytes as a cell type specific to the class Demospongiae. Clear homologues of archaeocytes are absent in other sponge classes. In demosponges, the term 'archaeocytes' refers to mesohyl cells that have an amoeboid shape, nucleolated nuclei, and non-specific inclusions in the cytoplasm. The absence of specific traits makes the archaeocytes a loosely defined and probably heterogeneous cell population, rendering the exhaustive characterisation of the 'true' archaeocyte population impossible. At the same time, the molecular characterisation of archaeocytes is only beginning to develop. Stemness and almost unlimited potency have always been at the core of the traditional archaeocyte concept. However, currently, the most consistent data on archaeocyte stem cell function come only from developing gemmules of freshwater sponges. For tissues of adult demosponges, the data favour a two-component stem cell system, in which archaeocytes may cooperate with another stem cell population, choanocytes. Simultaneously, cells with archaeocyte morphology function as macrophages in demosponges, participating in the food digestion cycle and immune defence. Such cells should be denoted with the more neutral term 'nucleolar amoebocytes', as the term 'archaeocyte' not only describes the morphology of a cell but also introduces the proposition of its stem nature. Thus, the future usage of the term 'archaeocyte' should be limited to cases where a cell is shown or at least presumed to be a stem cell.

Historical, Philosophical And Psychological Dimensions Of Bilingualism: Cognitive And Neurological Perspectives

Research on bilingualism has traditionally focused on its effects on language proficiency, yet a significant gap exists in understanding its broader cognitive impacts, particularly regarding executive functions and brain structure. This study aims to bridge that gap by examining the multifaceted influences of bilingualism on cognitive function, incorporating historical and philosophical perspectives to provide a comprehensive analysis. Using a systematic literature review approach, supported by neuroimaging studies, this research explores how bilingualism enhances brain plasticity and executive functions, such as attentional control and task-switching. Historical analysis reveals the shift from early 20th-century deficit views of bilingualism to the recognition of its cognitive advantages. Philosophical discussions further contextualize these findings, addressing the ethical considerations of cognitive enhancement and the mind-brain relationship in bilingual contexts. The results suggest that bilingualism confers distinct cognitive benefits, reshaping both brain structure and function. Based on these findings, this study offers key recommendations for improving future research methodologies, emphasizing the need for more diverse and standardized studies, and suggests practical counseling approaches that account for the psychological and philosophical complexities of bilingual identity. These insights challenge traditional views on cognitive development and have significant implications for educational policies, counseling strategies, and future neuroscience research.

A Plum Story? Early Encounters and Colonial Views of the Safu in Central Africa, Seventeenth-Twentieth Centuries

ABSTRACT The diversity of edible species originating in Africa is considerable, but the history of their use and domestication remains largely neglected, despite existing historical records. This essay aims to explore attitudes towards safu (Pachylobus edulis), a Central African fruit that defies Western categories. Based on more than one hundred archival documents, this study examines the history of the safu and the tree that produces it as seen by Europeans (German, English, Belgian, Spanish, French, Italian, Portuguese, Swedish, etc.) present in Central Africa. The documentation collected on safus and safu trees reflects not only local views of the species but also the broader European projects pursued on the continent and the vision of African foodways. Indeed, their valuation is symptomatic of food encounters and hierarchies during colonial settlement. More broadly, it reveals how subsistence and agriculture were viewed in the region: the ubiquity of this fruit tree around villages, as often reported, contrasts sharply with the historical narrative of the absence of African agriculture in the tropics. Finally, it shows how colonial enterprises, despite hindered dispersal and missed opportunities, circulated the species in different parts of the planet.

Illumination Fading

Abstract Bertrand Russell abandoned the notion of acquaintance in July 1918. What changes does this force in his account of the mind? This paper focuses on one puzzle of interpretation about this. In 1913, Russell offered an account of ‘egocentric particulars’, his term for indexicals and demonstratives. He argued that the fundamental objection to neutral monism was that it could not provide an adequate theory of these terms. In 1918, Russell now embraces a form of neutral monism, but he does not return to the problem of indexicals until 1940 in his William James lectures. Is the account given in 1940 significantly different from the one given in 1913? What was the argument against neutral monism in 1913? Does Russell offer a new solution in 1940 or reject his earlier view as mistaken? The answers offered here are used to draw more general morals about the current debate concerning relational theories of sense perception.

SINNERS AS BEASTS: SOME EARLY PATRISTIC VIEWS OF ANIMALS IN ECCLESIASTES

This essay constitutes an initial attempt to decipher early patristic views on animals by critically examining the responses of five eminent early Christian thinkers to the manbeast references contained in Ecclesiastes 3: 18-21: Thaumaturgus (213 – 270 AD), Didymus the Blind (313 – 398 AD), Chrysostom (347 – 407 AD), Jerome (347 – 420 AD), and Augustine (354 – 430 AD). Salient patterns of interpretation are identified and discussed in comparative terms contrasting ancient Hebraic and conventional biblical views with early patristic views as needed. Overall, the general finding here is that most of these early Christian thinkers (save Augustine) were heavily inclined not to interpret these verses contextually nor in Qoheleth’s own terms nor within the range of ancient Hebraic theology and cosmology.

On the Theoretically Possible Number of Cases in Natural Language

Introduction. The case, which is a semantic and grammatical category, appears in natural languages in the most unexpected way. A word or phrase that has a substantive unit at its core receives an inflection (internal or external) in one case or another, which can be expressed both explicitly and implicitly, and has a grammatical meaning. In this case, inflection can be accompanied by a preposition that has a lexical meaning. These case indicators, morphological and syntactic, organize the main or secondary substantive part of the sentence, i.e. are related to the category of space. The number of cases today is still the subject of scientific debate. Methodology and sources. The present study is based on analizing the views of various scientists on the category of case, with special attention to the theory of L. Hjelmslev. According to this theory, the maximum possible number of cases in natural language is 216. In order to provide a purely formal calculation of the possible number of cases, which would be at the same time independent on the earlier views, the article represents the substantive part of the sentence as a semifinitive multiplied by a specifier (proto-specifier). These statements are prescribed by the binomiality idea, having been developed since 1993 at ETU. Results and discussion. The generally accepted division of sentence parts into main and secondary ones leads us to dividing all possible cases into direct cases (for subject) and indirect cases (for secondary substantive parts). Thus, the direct case can be obtained by a simple transformation from any indirect case, i.e. the space specifier goes back to the spatial proto-specifier. The space proto-specifier represents external space added to substantive mass. The substantive semifinitive is a substantive mass multiplied by internal space. As the binomiality idea prescribes, substantive masses can be in four states, while substantive semifinitives can be in six states. Thus, the number of possible case forms should be equal to 24. Conclusion. According to classical physics, space is three-dimensional, so grammatical space, both external and internal, should also, obviously, be considered three-dimensional. This means that four states of substantive mass and six states of substantive semifinitives can be in each of the three dimensions. Thus, the maximum possible number of cases may indeed reach 216. It should be noted that L. Hjelmslev derived the number 216 in a completely different way, by dint of much deeper reasoning. In the future, it would be interesting to compare L. Hjelmslev’s binary oppositions with the constituents of substantive parts of sentence.

The young Leibniz's tentative acceptance of physical occasionalism

AbstractIn this article, I revisit Leibniz's early views on physical causation, more specifically, his relation to physical occasionalism focusing on the period from 1668 to 1676. An in‐depth analysis of the Confession of Nature against the Atheists taken together with the Catholic Demonstrations, Leibniz's correspondence with Jakob Thomasius from 1668/69, and the Pacidius Philalethi (1676) serve as evidence that his position leads to physical occasionalism. This receives further confirmation by taking into account Leibniz's familiarity with Weigel's occasionalism in contrast to Leibniz's later encounter of French occasionalism à la Cordemoy, La Forge, or Malebranche. Leibniz's exposure to Weigel's occasionalism, in turn, helps us better understand Leibniz's later critical reaction to occasionalism and how occasionalism helped him develop his own distinct views on causation as expressed in his mature philosophy.

The Nature of the Anti-Psychologistic Turn in Kazimierz Twardowski’s Philosophy

Abstract In this paper, I analyze the shift in Twardowski’s views between his early psychologistic theory of logic and his later anti-psychologistic theory. In particular, I point out that the interpretation suggesting that this change merely involves Twardowski enriching his ontology with products encounters a certain problem in light of his earlier views. To present this problem more precisely, I discuss the foundations of Twardowski’s theory of products, focusing on aspects relevant to the issue of psychologism. Based on this, I reconstruct Twardowski’s theory of logic and highlight where he identified the fallacy of psychologism. I contrast this reconstructed theory with Twardowski’s earlier views at key points and demonstrate that the difference between his early psychologistic theory and his later anti-psychologistic theory is a matter of a shift in emphasis rather than a significant change in the theoretical system itself, and that Twardowski himself understood it as such.

Understanding gender injustice in early marriage: Challenges faced by women

The form of gender inequality between women and men outlines the existence of female gender inequality, one of which is the phenomenon of early marriage. Therefore, the aim of this research is to determine the forms of gender inequality in women who commit early marriage. The research method uses a constructivism paradigm with a qualitative descriptive research type. The participants of this study consist of women who have entered into early marriages, while the focal point of investigation lies in discerning the various manifestations of gender injustice experienced within this demographic. Informants were purposefully selected, utilizing purposive sampling techniques to ensure comprehensive representation and depth in data collection. Data collection techniques use observation, interviews, and documentation. Data analysis uses data reduction, data presentation, and drawing conclusions. The data validity checking technique uses source triangulation and member checking. The findings of this research underscore the intricate interplay between gender injustice and entrenched cultural norms within the context of early marriage, illuminating the perpetuation of traditions and cultural practices across generations. Specifically, the study reveals pervasive forms of marginalization, subordination, stereotype reinforcement, instances of violence, and the imposition of double workloads experienced by women who engage in early marriages. Gender injustice in women from early marriage views women as having a lower status compared to men. The latest finding is that education is the single most effective weapon in fighting gender inequality and reducing the rate of early marriage.

Remaining True to Ourselves

It is common to think that, in making choices for others, we should consider their values. But do the current interests of people with dementia ever depend on what they used to value? Or do their interests depend solely on what matters to them from now on? Two approaches are especially prominent in the philosophical literature. Some believe that the capacity to value or significantly care about things bestows a certain standing on the person’s present perspective, making it inappropriate to appeal to her former values until the person no longer has this capacity. Others hold that a person’s past attitudes can never affect what is good for him now. On the “Revision Model” I defend, we should ordinarily recognize a person’s current values as authoritative in defining a person’s interests, because these represent his most up-to-date revision of his earlier views. However, if a person has lost the ability to comprehend his former values, then we cannot treat his current perspective as a genuine revision, since he is not answerable for the fact that his values have changed. Having never truly revised those former values, we should recognize their enduring relevance in defining his interests, insofar as they remain relevant to his life. This, however, is consistent with recognizing that the person’s interests may also depend on some of his current values and concerns as well.

An Analysis of Orientalist Approaches to Pre-Islamic Poetry From the Perspective of Prof. Dr. Fuat Sezgin

This article focuses on the pre-Islamic Arabian Jahiliyya period and the significance of the poetry from this era. The Jahiliyya period is considered a reflection of the pre-Islamic Arabian society and culture. The poetry from this period addresses societal, cultural, religious, and emotional themes, laying the foundation for Arabian literature. The poetry of the Jahiliyya period typically revolves around themes such as praise, criticism, yearning, love, heroism, and courage, while also touching upon the beliefs of the time. These poems serve as a rich reflection of Arabian culture and are regarded as crucial sources in Arabic Language and Literature, Arabic Rhetoric, and Islamic sciences. Orientalists, in their exploration of Jahiliyya period poetry, have produced works based on their own perspectives and methodologies. However, some Orientalists, particularly those focused on Jahiliyya poetry, have raised concerns about potential plagiarism and fabrication. These criticisms have evolved from the early views of Theodor Nöldeke to the radical approach of D. S. Margoliouth and the stance adopted by Taha Hussein. Prof. Dr. Fuat Sezgin, possessing expertise in Classical and Modern Arabic literature sources, has argued for the originality of Jahiliyya poetry. Sezgin supports this claim by drawing upon classical and modern sources, while also critiquing the works of Orientalists. In this article, the reasons behind the suspicion of Jahiliyya poetry being plagiarized or fabricated are elucidated by examining the works of Orientalists. Furthermore, Sezgin's approach and methodology in asserting the authenticity of Jahiliyya poetry are analyzed.

Nietzsche’s Early Views on the Relation between Language and Philosophy

Bu makale Nietzsche’nin dil-felsefe ilişkisine dair erken dönem görüşlerinin yakın bir okumasını sunmaktadır. Bu analiz birkaç ana tema etrafında yapılandırılmıştır. Birincisi, dilin müzikal ve metaforik unsurlarıyla ilgili olarak Nietzsche, dilin iki ana öğeden oluştuğunu öne sürmektedir: “tonal taban” ve “jest sembolizmi.” İkinci olarak, Nietzsche, müzikal olan öğenin diğerine olan önceliğini vurgular. Dahası, Nietzsche müzikal öğeyi Diyonizyak olanla, metaforik öğeyi ise Apollonikle ilişkilendirir. Bunların ışığında bu makale, Nietzsche düşüncesinde dil, felsefe ve “hakikat” arasındaki karmaşık ilişkinin izini sürer. Bilginin metaforik karakterine ve kendinde-şeyleri ifade etme konusundaki içsel yetersizliğine vurgu yapar. Çünkü bilgi, zorunlu olarak keyfi bir karakter taşımakta olan jest sembolizmiyle bağlantılıdır. Bunun yanı sıra, Nietzsche’nin dilin kökeni ve teleolojisi üzerine bakış açısı ve kavramların oluşumundaki “eşitsiz şeylerin eşitlemesiyle” karakterize edilen mantıksız işleyişe dair iddiası gibi konuları ele alır. Son olarak, dilin bize kavramlar aracılığıyla sunduğu dünyayı inceleyerek, bu dünyanın görüngüler dünyasıyla karşılaştırıldığında içsel bir güçsüzlükten muzdarip olduğunu vurgular. Bu tartışmalar aracılığıyla, bu makale, Nietzsche’nin erken döneminde rastladığımız ve özellikle bir bölümü literatürde sıklıkla ihmal edilmekte olan bu önemli düşüncelerine ışık tutmayı amaçlar.

Reasoning from the impossible: early medieval views on conditionals and counterpossibles

ABSTRACT Impossible antecedents entered the scene of medieval logic around the 1120s and soon started to dominate this scene, becoming one of the most debated issues from the second half of the twelfth century onwards. This article focuses on theories of counterpossibles from this period and aims to offer an overview of the different responses offered by twelfth-century logicians on whether everything, something, or nothing follows from an impossible statement. Rather than trying to historically reconstruct the positions of the different authors – an operation that may be premature given the insufficient notions we still have of the authorship and dating of sources – I aim to provide a provisional map of the main arguments that were advanced in favour of or against the ex impossibili quodlibet principle. The article also aims to show that the strategies developed by twelfth-century logical schools in their approach to counterpossibles survive in logical discussions of the same topic during the thirteenth and the early fourteenth century, especially in the syncategoremata and sophistaria traditions.

Criticism of the Criticism of Islam and the West in the Philosophical Thought of Vladimir Sergeyevich Solovyov

The philosophy of cosmism traces its origins back to the philosophical traditions of Ancient Greece. The philosophy of cosmism encompasses various dimensions, including religious-philosophical, mystical, artistic, aesthetic, and scientific aspects. Within this philosophical framework, the concepts pertaining to human beings and mankind are interconnected, forming a cohesive community. The term “Cosmism” originates from the Greek term (κόσμος) "kosmos," which refers to a harmoniously organized world. The earliest views on this subject are found in Hesiod's Theogonia (The Birth of the Gods). The conception of the universe in the texts of ancient Greek thought was shaped by questioning the relationship between the phenomenon and the noumena realm within the framework of the archaea problem. It is possible to see how Plato and Aristotle constructed these metaphysical relations in their cosmology. The cosmological knowledge of medieval philosophy also exhibits the impact of Greek cosmology. Ptolemy systematically addresses Greek cosmology. During the 16th century, significant advancements were made in cosmology, encompassing a wide range of concepts and hypotheses. The scientific discoveries and theories of Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton not only presented a scientific viewpoint but also prompted inquiries regarding humanity's position and significance within the context of history and intellectual development. Russian Cosmism emerged relatively late in global philosophy, specifically around the mid-19th century. According to Solovyov, the human mind, which serves as the guiding force in the functioning of the world, is engaged in a perpetual struggle against the primordial state of disorder and confusion. He asserted that this world's spirit and nature had a covert agreement. The mind (logos) is responsible for creating this magnificent existence within the realm. The process called “Creation” encompasses two interconnected objectives, general and particular in nature. The general purpose is the embodiment of an actual idea, i.e., light and life in various forms of natural beauty; however, the special purpose is the creation of man, i.e., the most incredible physical beauty also represents the highest inner potential of light and life. Solovyov calls this phenomenon as self-consciousness. Solovyov contends, by highlighting this beautiful creation of man, that man is no longer merely a participant in the action of cosmic principles but also a being capable of understanding the purpose of this action and, as a result, working meaningfully and freely toward its accomplishment. Solovyov analyzed Islamic issues from different angles in his Works titled The Three Forces, Philosophical Principles of Holistic Knowledge, and other works such as Christian Politics and the History and Future of Theocracy, Muhammad, Her Life, and Religious Teachings. As a religious philosopher, Solovyov's aim in addressing these issues was to try to solve the problems of Christian thought within the framework of the philosophy of cosmism he developed. The main aim of this article is to examine Solovyov's thoughts on the position of man in Islam and Western Christianity and the shortcomings of his criticisms on this subject. In this article, Solovyov's thoughts on the place of man in Islam and Western Christianity and some of the shortcomings of his critical views are analyzed. Solovyov's criticisms of the Western Church and its adverse effects on the development of the individual's free personality were investigated. The methodological ties of the ontological structure of Solovyov's theories of 'God,' 'Spirit,' 'Soul,' and 'Sophia' with ancient and Western philosophy are emphasized. As a result, it has been determined that Solovyov's criticism of Islam and the West is approached from the perspective of his own beliefs and that his thoughts have excessive subjective interpretation.

Connecting Classical and Early Neoclassical Views on Savings and Capital Formation to Modern Growth Theory Through the Lens of F. P. Ramsey

Connecting Classical and Early Neoclassical Views on Savings and Capital Formation to Modern Growth Theory Through the Lens of F. P. Ramsey

Мотив помощника в калмыцких сказках на сюжетный тип AT 508 «Благодарный мертвец»

Introduction. In the Kalmyk folktale tradition, AT type 508 (The Grateful Dead) develops through the motif of miraculous helper. The analysis shows that the main character pays some debt of the deceased one — to acquire an assistant. Goals. The study examines the motif of assistant in Kalmyk folktales clustering with AT type 508 (The Grateful Dead). Materials. The paper analyzes folktale texts published in Clear Script (Kalm. todo bičiq), Roman characters, and modern Kalmyk Cyrillic. Results. Before a long journey, the hero offers his servant to partake of some food which is a test for the latter: any refusal from the viands of humans shall indicate the companion belongs to the spirit world. The magic nature of the hero’s assistant is also manifested through his abilities to move at extremely high speed and understand the language of animals. And it is due to the latter gift that the assistant hears a dog and a cat’s conversation — to prompt the young man a remedy for the Khan’s daughter. Cat bile acts as medicine in all versions of Kalmyk folktales related to the type ‘Grateful Dead’. A. Afanasyev notes bile serves as medicine for the resurrection and eyesight recovery in the Russian fairy tale ‘Yeruslan Lazarevich’, emphasizing the ‘linguistic and mythical connection’ between — sunshine, glitter of gold, and the yellow color of bile. Being aware of the trouble, the grateful dead person protects his savior and the latter’s spouse from the snake venom. When accused of encroachments, he confesses all his good deeds (massacre of seven cannibal demons, their daughters, wives, and the former’s old mother) and sets outs towards the world of the dead ruled by Erlik Nomin Khan. The hero decides not to leave his assistant and follows him up to hell. Kalmyk folktales of the mentioned type are distinguished by description of trials experienced by the main character and his assistant in the realms of the dead. Possessions of Erlik Nomin Khan — the lord of the dead — are depicted in accordance with ideas of Buddhist hell traced in Oirat written monuments, such as The Story of Chojid-Dagini, The Tale of Molon-Toyin, The Tale of the Goose-Lama, The Tale of Naranu Gerel etc. It is the descriptions of Buddhist hell that distinguish the international type ‘Grateful Dead’ in the Kalmyk oral tradition through the motif of miraculous helper. Conclusions. The motif of helper in the considered folktales unfolds on the basis of traditional ideas with that earlier views were replaced by later Buddhist ones.

Illness, Pain, and Health Care in Early Christianity

Illness, Pain, and Health Care in Early Christianity

Radon transport carried by geogas: prediction model.

This paper provides an overview and information on radon migration in the crust. In the past several decades, numerous studies on radon migration have been published. However, there is no there is no comprehensive review of large-scale radon transport in the earth crust. A literature review was conducted to present the research on the mechanism of radon migration, geogas theory, investigation of multiphase flow, and modeling method of fractures. Molecular diffusion was long considered the primary mechanism for radon migration in the crust. However, a molecular diffusion mechanism cannot explain the understanding of anomalous radon concentrations. In contrast with early views, the process of radon migration and redistribution within the Earth may be determined by geogas (mainly CO2 and CH4). Microbubbles rising in fractured rocks may be a rapid and efficient way of radon migration, as reported by recent studies. All these hypotheses on the mechanisms of geogas migration are summarized into a theoretical framework, defined as "geogas theory." According to geogas theory, fractures are the principal channel of gas migration. The development of the discrete fracture network (DFN) method is expected to supply a new tool for fracture modeling. It is hoped that this paper will contribute to a deeper understanding of radon migration and fracture modeling.

The Evolution of the Thought of Richard Peters: Neglected Aspects

Abstract Peters is best known for ‘Ethics and Education’, (1966) an attempt, using analytical methods, to provide a universal canonical account of the nature of education. This corresponded closely with the prevailing conception of liberal education of the time. Despite the acclaim with which this work was received, Peters became increasingly dissatisfied with his early views of education and in a series of papers written between 1973 and 1982, he retreated slowly from the view that one could construct a universal canonical account of education and even from the view that this could be possible for liberal education. As his views changed, his philosophical methods developed as well, moving from the Moorean essentialist analysis of 1966, through a more Strawsonian connective analysis in the mid 1970s to a position based on W.B. Gallie's account of essentially contested concepts in the early 1980s. Parallel to and connected with this changing philosophical methodology came a distinction between an overarching concept of education and particular conceptions of education related to different societies and their values.

Can Cessation Be a Cognitive State? Philosophical Implications of the Apophatic Teachings of the Early Buddhist Nikāyas

Abstract: The Nikāyas contain several apophatic descriptions of a state of cessation that occurs during the life of an individual. Furthermore, some texts suggest that this cessation paradoxically coincides with liberating insight. This article attempts to draw out philosophical implications of these passages and to reconstruct the ideas serving as their basis. To make better sense of these ideas, the article compares early Buddhist views with certain developments in modern philosophy of mind. It argues that cessation of khandha -s and saḷāyatana -s may be viewed as suspension of various aspects of globally available phenomenal consciousness. It hypothesizes that this suspension is necessary due to the latter's processed character, which precludes direct cognition of reality. It attempts to account for a cognitive nature of cessation by suggesting the possibility of the mind (citta) working independently of phenomenal consciousness. It also considers the issue of cognitive content of cessation and of its expressibility.