Early Upper Pleistocene Research Articles

The Origin of H. s. denisovan and Their Dispersal Across Iran

Before the early 2000s, anthropologists spoke of two taxa existing in the Late Middle and Early Upper Pleistocene: anatomically modern humans in Africa and Neanderthals associated with the Mousterian industry in Eurasia. Therefore, all Eurasian Paleolithic sites dating to that period were believed to be Mousterian and were associated with Neanderthals. In 2010, owing to the sequencing of mtDNA from a fragment of the distal phalanx of the hand found in Denisova Cave, a third species was introduced, genetically different from both anatomically modern humans and Neanderthals. This new taxon was termed H. s. denisovan—or simply Denisovan. Further studies showed that this population dispersed in the Late Middle and Early Upper Pleistocene across vast territories of Central and Southeast Asia. A question arose as to where Denisovans had originated and which routes they had taken to get to the Altai. A series of articles forthcoming in this journal will address these questions. The first of them focuses on the origin of Denisovans on the basis of H. heidelbergensis and on their migration via Iran to Central Asia.

Archaeological evidence of rodent consumption in North Africa: The Middle Stone Age of the rock shelter Ifri n'ammar in northeastern Morocco

This study presents undeniable evidence of anthropogenic exploitation of small mammals in Ifri n'Ammar rock shelter, located in the northeast of Morocco. Among the rodent species found at this site, Ctenodactylus gundi predominates in the assemblage of small mammals between approximately 130 ± 8 ka and 83 ± 6 ka. The taphonomic analysis of the fossil remains of this species, discovered alongside other components of the archaeological assemblage, clearly indicates that during the Middle Stone Age (MSA), humans consumed this species. Therefore, they are considered the main agents responsible for the accumulation of dental and postcranial remains of this species recorded in the shelter. Since the early Upper Pleistocene, bone elements bearing cut-marks and burn traces unequivocally attest to the consumption of this rodent by the hunter-gatherers at the Ifri n'Ammar rock shelter. Our findings regarding the exploitation of this species by humans in the northeastern region of Morocco are corroborated by ethnographic data, demonstrating that North African populations captured and consumed this large-sized rodent until the last century. The species Ctenodactylus gundi is known for its diurnal activity, gregarious and social habits, as well as its preference for rocky and arid environments.

The Latest Occurrence of Stephanorhinus hundsheimensis (Rhinocerotidae) in Europe: The Skeletons from the Cova del Rinoceront Site (Castelldefels, Barcelona)

New rhino remains recovered from Cova del Rinoceront (Castelldefels, Barcelona) confirm the presence of Stephanorhinus hundsheimensis (Toula, 1902) at the site and the taxon’s persistence until the late Middle–early Upper Pleistocene in Europe, that is, its latest documented occurrence. The three individuals recovered from the site are compared with specimens of other Pleistocene species, including those of S. hemitoechus, S. kirchbergensis and Coelodonta antiquitatis, but their anatomical characteristics (a long skull, moderate occipital elevation, partial nasal septum, and slender zygomatic arch) do not coincide with the latter’s documented features. Certain similarities are found with the most frequently occurring rhinocerotid at that time in the Iberian Peninsula, S. hemitoechus, but the cranial features of the latter differ. The anatomical characteristics of the Cova del Rinoceront individuals coincide most closely with those of S. hundsheimensis (i.e., a high occipital face, with rounded proximolateral angles and oblique lateral borders, as well as the frontoparietal angle, and facial development). Despite the marked overlaps in the general measurements of S. hundsheimensis and S. hemitoechus, many (cranial and postcranial) dimensions of the Cova del Rinoceront individuals coincide more closely with those of the former, although some bone proportions are more similar to those of the latter specimens. Therefore, S. kirchbergensis and C. antiquitatis can be discarded as they tend to be larger, more robust species.

A human lower third molar from the Acheulean site of Cueva del Ángel (Lucena, Córdoba, Spain)

AbstractObjectivesTo present a new dental specimen that will provide additional evidence for a better understanding of early European Upper Pleistocene hominin morphological variability.Materials and MethodsWe described the morphology of this human right lower third molar at both the outer enamel surface and the enamel–dentine junction by means of micro‐computed tomography. In order to better understand hominin diversity, our morphological and metrical results were compared with those of other hominins obtained from published research. We provide a direct aspartic acid racemization dating of the molar.ResultsThe direct dating (104.3 ka) situates the molar within the Marine isotopic stage 5d. The crown dimensions are comparable to those of the Sima de los Huesos sample and modern humans. The combination of a continuous middle trigonid crest and a well‐developed anterior fovea lies within the range of morphological variation reported for Neanderthal lower molars. The distal portion of the molar has a prominent protostylid.DiscussionCrown and root morphology of this molar fits within the Neanderthal morphological pattern. However, both its dimensions and the absence of a hypoconulid tend to position this specimen away from contemporaneous Neanderthals and rather relate it more closely to some Middle Pleistocene populations.ConclusionsA new dental specimen is added to the Iberian Peninsula fossil record from the Marine isotopic stage 5, attesting to some degree of dental variability in the early Upper Pleistocene.

Diet of the earliest modern humans in East Asia.

Reconstructing diet can offer an improved understanding toward the origin and evolution of modern humans. However, the diet of early modern humans in East Asia is poorly understood. Starch analysis of dental calculus is harmless to precious fossil hominins and provides the most direct evidence of plant food sources in early modern human dietary records. In this paper, we examined the starch grains in dental calculus from Fuyan Cave hominins in Daoxian (South China), which were the earliest modern humans in East Asia. Our results reveal the earliest direct evidence of a hominin diet made of acorns, roots, tubers, grass seeds, and other yet-unidentified plants in marine isotope stage 5 between 120 and 80 ka. Our study also provides the earliest evidence that acorns may have played an important role in subsistence strategies. There may have been a long-lasting tradition of using these plants during the Late Pleistocene in China. Plant foods would have been a plentiful source of carbohydrates that greatly increased energy availability to human tissues with high glucose demands. Our study provides the earliest direct consumption of carbohydrates-rich plant resources from modern humans in China for the first time. In addition, it also helps elucidate the evolutionary advantages of early modern humans in the late Middle and early Upper Pleistocene.

Middle Pleistocene mortality pattern and fertility: the case of the Atapuerca hominids (Sima de los Huesos site, Burgos, Spain).

The Sima de los Huesos cave site in the Sierra de Atapuerca, northern Spain, has yielded up to the 1994 season a large sample of more than one thousand human fossil remains belonging to at least 32 individuals, which represent a same European Middle Pleistocene biological population. The elaboration of the survivorship curve of this hominid group has emphasized a high mortality among adolescents and young adults, a low older adult mortality and a longevity probably non greater than 40 years. This pattern of mortality resembles to that of other European Middle and early Upper Pleistocene hominids, and is quite different from that observed in recent foraging human groups. Consideration of the main determinants of human fertility suggests that the average interval between successful births in Atapuerca, and probably in ali European Middle Pleistocene populations, was shorter than that of living hunting and gathering peoples, and that the age at menarche and nubility was earlier than those of living girls. lmplications of these findings for the yet unresolved question of body sexual dimorphism in the Middle Pleistocene populations are discussed as well.

Hominin occupation of the Tibetan Plateau during the Last Interglacial Complex

The Paleolithic archaeological record of the Tibetan Plateau is crucial for understanding human ecological and genetic adaptation to life in high altitudes. Recent work on the Tibetan Plateau has documented hominin occupations by Denisovans at Baishiya Karst Cave (BKC) from at least ca. 160, and again around 100 and 60 thousand years ago (ka), followed by modern human occupation at Nwya Devu (ND) around 30–40 ka. However, with the exception of these two geographically distinct sites, there are very few Paleolithic sites with secure stratigraphy and reliable dates on the Tibetan Plateau. Thus, the spatial and temporal history of Paleolithic hominin occupation of the Tibetan Plateau remains poorly understood. Here we report a newly discovered well-stratified and well-dated Paleolithic site, Jiangjunfu 01 (JJF01), from the northeastern margin of the plateau. Optical dating of sediments from cultural layers shows that the site was occupied by hominin who employed simple core-and-flake technology, during warmer interglacial environments ∼90–120 ka. To date, JJF01 is one of the three oldest archaeological sites with secure stratigraphy and reliable dating from the Tibetan Plateau, further confirming that hominins, potentially Denisovans, occupied and inhabited the highest region of our planet at least by the early Upper Pleistocene.

Quaternary Stratigraphic Division and Paleoenvironmental Evolution Observed from Core LZK1 on Hengsha Island, Shanghai

AbstractThe Quaternary sediments in the Yangtze delta are loose and lack precise stratification marks in the lithology. Moreover, due to the limitations of dating methods, it is difficult for Quaternary cores to deliver accurate age constraints. Thus, it is a challenge to establish the Quaternary stratigraphic framework. Gravity core LZK1 was drilled on Hengsha Island, Shanghai, in the Yangtze delta, in 2012. The core was terminated at 403.83 m below the local land surface, the uppermost 291.2 m comprising a thick sequence of Quaternary sediments. This study investigated the stratigraphic subdivision and paleoenvironmental change of the Quaternary sediments. From bottom to top, the Quaternary stratigraphic sequence can be subdivided into the lower Pleistocene Anting Formation, Middle Pleistocene Jiading Formation, Upper Pleistocene Chuansha Formation and Nanhui Formation, Holocene Loutang Formation, Shanghai Formation, and Rudong Formation. According to this study, the Hengsha Island area was dominated by a freshwater lacustrine environment during the early Pleistocene, an alternation of shallow lake and shore lake environment during the Middle Pleistocene, a delta plain to lagoonal environment during the early Upper Pleistocene, a fluvial channel to floodplain environment from the LGM (Last Glacial Maximum) to the end of the Upper Pleistocene, and a delta environment during the Holocene.

Results of a functional study on the Middle to early Upper Pleistocene lithic assemblages from the Azokh 1 Cave site (South Caucasus)

The study of the lithic artefacts exploited by early hominins and the manner in which they were used is a key aspect of lithic studies. Azokh Cave in the Southern Caucasus comprises a complete stratigraphic sequence of five archaeological units (Units V–I) and has yielded large Middle to early Upper Pleistocene lithic and faunal assemblages in association with hominin remains. The aim of this study was to evaluate the state of preservation of the lithic assemblages recovered from a marginal area at the rear of the cave and to test the feasibility of functionally analysing these artefacts. The study focused on a sample of archaeological pieces that at the macroscopic scale exhibit fresh surfaces and unaltered edges. These were analysed using various microscopes. The results obtained revealed that some archaeological artefacts from different units do preserve diagnostic use-wear traces. Microwear on the archaeological pieces and a comparison of that wear with experimental results enabled us to identify features related to longitudinal actions and the working of soft material, and those related to transversal actions and the working of hard material. Based on this information, we interpreted that these artefacts were used for activities related to butchery, hideworking, and at times, woodworking.

Luminescence chronology and lithic technology of Tianhuadong Cave, an early Upper Pleistocene Paleolithic site in southwest China

AbstractTianhuadong is a cave site located in the northwest of Yunnan Province, China. Since 2010, several surveys and one test excavation have yielded more than 1000 stone artifacts. The lithic assemblage shows some features of Levallois and Quina technologies, similar to those found in Middle Paleolithic sites in the Western Hemisphere. In this study, we summarize the lithic industry and propose a reliable chronology for the site using optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating of individual quartz grains extracted from sediments. We applied the standardized growth curve method to deal with the problem associated with the saturation in natural OSL signals in quartz. Our dating results yielded ages of 90–40 ka, suggesting that the associated lithic assemblage could be assigned to Marine Oxygen Isotope Stages 5 and 4 and could potentially represent Middle Paleolithic technologies. Because the number of Middle Paleolithic sites in southwest China is small, this site provides one of the few traces of human occupation in southwest China during the early upper Pleistocene. Thus, it is important for understanding hominin evolution and dispersal in this region.

Subsistence strategies of Gravettian hunter–gatherers in the northeast of the Iberian Peninsula: the case of level E of Arbreda Cave (Serinyà)

The Gravettian covers a long period characterised by widely fluctuating climatic conditions that led to a diversity of subsistence strategies, which extended from the Iberian Atlantic coast to Siberia. Within this vast area, the northeast of Iberia acted as a transitional territory, between steppe–tundra in the northern regions and Iberian wooded steppe to the south. Owing to the small number of studies, subsistence during the Gravettian period in this region is not as yet well known. The Arbreda Cave site (Serinya) preserves the largest and most detailed Palaeolithic stratigraphy of the Reclau Cave complex, providing the most accurate information about the changes that occurred from the Early Upper Pleistocene to the Holocene in the northeast Iberian Peninsula. Presented here is a detailed archaeozoological and taphonomic study of Iberian Middle Gravettian level E (c. 26–25 kyr 14C BP). Allowing for the possibility that density-mediated biases and post-burial bone attrition may have influenced the study, it appears to confirm that the rich faunal assemblage recovered at this level was primarily due to anthropogenic activities. On the contrary, the slight evidence of carnivore activity mainly consists of small prey. The archaeozoological analysis suggests selective hunting focused almost entirely on familial groups of horses and red deer among ungulates and rabbits among small prey. The taphonomic study points to extensive animal exploitation-butchery activities, marrow extraction and use of bone as fuel and raw material to make “less-elaborated” tools. Hunter–gatherer communities made seasonal use of the cave as a temporary residential camp site, preferably between spring and autumn. Upper Palaeolithic horse-dominated macrofaunal assemblages are rare in the Iberian Peninsula, being found only in the Cantabrian and Catalonia regions. In contrast to what is observed in southern Mediterranean areas, the higher percentage of horses in relation to red deer in Arbreda Cave may indicate colder conditions for this area located close to the expanse of the steppe–tundra biome.

Study on geotechnical characteristics of marine soil at Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macao tunnel

The Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macao Bridge (HZMB) immersed tunnel is part of the HZMB, connecting three vibrant cities and crossing the Lingding Sea in South China. It is at the west channel of the Pearl River Estuary and the Tonggu West Channel. The stratum in this area includes deep soft soil with large differences in soil distribution. Based on geotechnical investigation data on marine soil at the HZMB tunnel, the spatial distribution of physical and mechanical properties of deposit soils was statistically analyzed. A field investigation revealed that deposit soils could be subdivided into four strata: Holocene marine deposit stratum, late Upper Pleistocene continental, mid Upper Pleistocene marine alluvial deposit, and early Upper Pleistocene alluvial deposit stratum. Field and laboratory test results indicate that Holocene marine deposit soils had a high water content (42.5% < < 81.2%), large void ratio (1.21 < < 2.43), flow-plastic state ( > 1), high compressibility ( < 5 MPa), low shear strength (2.5 kPa < < 28.5 kPa), and low bearing capacity (58.9 < < 120 kPa); therefore, they could not be used as a natural foundation. The late, mid, and early Upper Pleistocene continental deposit strata had low water content (1.5% < < 40.5%), high bearing capacity ( > 120kPa), low void ratio (0.41 < < 1.24), and low flow-plastic to liquid state ( < 0.95), Additionally, the results of regression analysis showed that the compression ratio was positively correlated with natural water content. Finding from field and laboratory tests provide a basis for immersed tunnel design and construction.

Climate, environment and human behaviour in the Middle Palaeolithic of Abrigo de la Quebrada (Valencia, Spain): The evidence from charred plant and micromammal remains

The Abrigo de la Quebrada rock shelter was occupied by Neanderthal groups during the early Upper Pleistocene, yielding evidence for their subsistence practices and local resource exploitation. This paper focuses on the plant macroremains and the micromammals, which provide information about occupation patterns, the surrounding landscape, the use of resources, and the environment. Mountain pine forests and permanent grass formations containing humid zones and open spaces that would have harboured an eurythermal microfauna were the dominant landscape type. Cold-climate pines provided most of the firewood. The data are consistent with a recurrent, seasonal occupation pattern, in which the rock shelter was used for short periods in the context of an annual round characterized by a high degree of mobility.

Geomorphic response to late Quaternary tectonics in the axial portion of the Southern Apennines (Italy): A case study from the Calore River valley

AbstractThe present study focuses on the morphotectonic evolution of the axial portion of the Southern Apennine chain between the lower Calore River valley and the northern Camposauro mountain front (Campania Region). A multidisciplinary approach was used, including geomorphological, field‐geology, stratigraphical, morphotectonic, structural, 40Ar/39Ar and tephrostratigraphical data. Results indicate that, from the Lower Pleistocene onwards, this sector of the chain was affected by extensional tectonics responsible for the onset of the sedimentation of Quaternary fluvial, alluvial fan and slope deposits. Fault systems are mainly composed of NW‐SE, NE–SW and W‐E trending strike‐slip and normal faults, associated to NW‐SE and NE–SW oriented extensions. Fault scarps, stratigraphical and structural data and morphotectonic indicators suggest that these faults affected the wide piedmont area of the northern Camposauro mountain front in the Lower Pleistocene–Upper Pleistocene time span. Faults affected both the oldest Quaternary slope deposits (Laiano Synthem, Lower Pleistocene) and the overlying alluvial fan system deposits constrained between the late Middle Pleistocene and the Holocene. The latter are geomorphologically and chrono‐stratigraphically grouped into four generations, I generation: late Middle Pleistocene–early Upper Pleistocene, with tephra layers 40Ar/39Ar dated to 158±6 and 113±7 ka; II generation: Upper Pleistocene, with tephra layers correlated with the Campanian Ignimbrite (39 ka) and with the slightly older Campi Flegrei activity (40Ar/39Ar age 48±7 ka); III generation: late Upper Pleistocene–Lower Holocene, with tephra layers correlated with the Neapolitan Yellow Tuff (~15 ka); IV generation: Holocene in age. The evolution of the first three generations was controlled by Middle Pleistocene extensional tectonics, while Holocene fans do not show evidence of tectonic activity. Nevertheless, considering the moderate to high magnitude historical seismicity of the study area, we cannot rule out that some of the recognized faults may still be active. Copyright © 2018 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

ESR/U-series chronology of early Neanderthal occupations at Cova Negra (Valencia, Spain)

The spatiotemporal repartition of Neanderthal populations throughout the late Middle and early Upper Pleistocene is of great interest for our understanding of human evolution. Establishing a reliable chronology for human-bearing layers from prehistoric sites is thus essential for the study of Neanderthal population dynamics prior to modern human arrival in Europe. Cova Negra (Valencia, Spain) is one of the richest sites documenting Neanderthal fossil bones in the Iberian Peninsula (Arsuaga et al., 1989, 2007; Villaverde et al., 2014). The stratigraphic sequence includes 15 Middle Palaeolithic layers. Among them, four were dated by the ESR/U-series dating method on enamel from six herbivore fossil teeth. Equivalent doses were obtained using the additive dose method on multi-aliquots. U-content, 234U/238U and 230Th/234U isotopic ratios were measured using ICP-QMS. Results indicate that dental tissues from two out of six analysed teeth underwent U leaching during burial. Thus, it does not allow the calculation of US-ESR (U-series-ESR, Grün et al., 1988) ages for these samples. However, ages calculated using AU model (Accelerating Uptake, Shao et al., 2012) are discussed together with biochronological data and previous absolute ages obtained for the archaeological sequence. Age results indicate that Neanderthals occupied Cova Negra during MIS 8 to 6, between 273 ± 26 ka and 146 ± 34 ka. These results suggest that human occupation took place at the end of the Middle Pleistocene, and hence it is older than proposed by previous TL ages obtained on sediments (Arsuaga et al., 2007). By contrast, our ESR/U-Th ages suggest that Neanderthals were present in the cave 100 ka earlier than initially proposed, in agreement with TL ages obtained on burnt flint (Villaverde et al., 2014). This implies that the Cova Negra human specimens could represent one the earliest occurrences of Neanderthal presence in the Iberian Peninsula.

Imanolen Arrobia: A New Late Pleistocene Carnivore Den from the North of the Iberian Peninsula (Deba, Spain)

Abstract. A taphonomic and systematic study of an assemblage of large mammals preserved in an early Upper Pleistocene deposit in Imanolen Arrobia (Deba, northern Spain) is hereby reported. Skeletal profiles, long bone fragmentation and tooth marks reveal that carnivores transported wild goats and chamois carcasses to the cave for their consumption. The abundance of juvenile remains suggests that these carnivores preferentially preyed on immature individuals. After considering the frequencies of different carnivores in the assemblage and other taphonomic and neo-taphonomic features and, even though the wolf (Canis lupus) cannot be completely discarded, the leopard (Panthera pardus) is proposed as the plausible responsible for the hunting and transport of the ungulate remains to the cave. The bones were subsequently probably modified by foxes (Vulpes vulpes) that used the cave as a breeding den. By way of comparative data from the Cantabrian region and especially from the Basque Country, a metric study draw...

Evolution of rodent populations in the middle Rhône valley (right bank, Ardèche, France) during the late middle pleistocene and the early upper pleistocene from mis 6 to mis 4

Les rongeurs, par leur grande diversite, forment de tres bons indicateurs paleoenvironnementaux. A ce titre, les restes de rongeurs de plusieurs sites du Paleolithique moyen de la vallee du Rhone ont ete analyses via des etudes biostratigraphiques, taphonomiques et paleoecologiques. Les sites des Barasses II, de la Baume Moula-Guercy et de Payre ont pu etre integres dans une chronologie climatique et environnementale de la region et compares avec d’autres sequences (Abri des Pecheurs et Grand Abri aux Puces). De plus, ces analyses ont revele l’existence de nombreuses communautes dites « non analogues », qui, par l’utilisation d’analyses statistiques et d’indices de diversite, permettent de mieux cerner les dynamiques de populations de rongeurs de la region. Le role de couloir de migration de la vallee du Rhone est mis en evidence ainsi que l’existence de zones refuges cryptiques au sein du Massif central et des Alpes occidentales.

The Middle Paleolithic of Arabia

The study focuses on the origin and evolution of the Middle Paleolithic in the Arabian Peninsula, a major crossroads of human and animal migrations connecting Africa with Eurasia in the Late Middle and Early Upper Pleistocene. Middle Paleolithic human dispersal in Arabia was caused by intermittent environmental changes and related fl uctuations of the Bab-el-Mandeb level. A key role in the African Middle Paleolithic was played by Afro-Arabian Nubian lithic industries showing characteristically Levallois features and associated with anatomically modern humans who had migrated from Africa. Arabian fi nds are discussed with reference to the Out-of-Africa and Multiregional models of human evolution. Based on the totality of cranial, archaeological, and paleogenetic data, it is proposed that modern humankind emerged from the admixture of at least four related taxa that had evolved in Africa and Eurasia. A hypothesis about the migration of Homo sapiens from Africa across Arabia to Southeast Asia and Sahul 70–50 ka BP is discussed.

BLADE AND MICROBLADE INDUSTRIES IN NORTHERN, EASTERN, AND CENTRAL ASIA 1. AFRICAN ORIGIN AND SPREAD TO THE NEAR EAST

Being the first in a series, this study addresses the place of the blade industry among those of Africa and Eurasia, and its origin and evolution in southern, eastern and northern Africa. The blade technology first appeared in the Kapturin Formation some 500 ka BP. The Middle Stone Age industries of southern, eastern, and northern Africa were mostly based on the Levallois technique, which included points, blades, and flakes; and on radial flaking. In the late Middle and early Upper Pleistocene, two principal technologies, Aterian and Nubian, emerged in northern and northeastern Africa; whereas the principal industries of southern and partly eastern Africa were Howieson's Poort (whose primary reduction technique was basically Upper Paleolithic), and an industry on predominantly geometric tools. Both were associated with anatomically modern humans, who migrated to Eurasia at various stages of the Upper Pleistocene.

Cova del Rinoceront (Castelldefels, Barcelona): a terrestrial record for the Last Interglacial period (MIS 5) in the Mediterranean coast of the Iberian Peninsula

The Cova del Rinoceront, a site in NE Iberia, contains a thick sedimentary fill preserving a faunal archive from the penultimate glacial and the the last interglacial periods. Layers I to III have been dated to between 74 and 147 ka, coinciding with MIS 5a to 5e, a period poorly represented in the Mediterranean terrestrial record. The results from Cova del Rinoceront are of broader interest for the reconstruction of ecological dynamics during warm stages and the understanding of the evolution and geographical variation of several taxa. The palaeoecological evidence suggests a landscape dominated by mixed wooded vegetation with mild climatic conditions, slightly more humid than today. Several vertebrate taxa, including Haploidoceros mediterraneus, Stephanorhinus hundsheimensis and Glis glis, are documented for the first time in the early Upper Pleistocene of Europe, showing that these species persisted across the region for longer than previously thought. In addition, the recovery of a small lithic assemblage indicates human presence in the surroundings of the site. The 11 m-thick stratigraphic section also provides an ideal setting in which to compare several geochronological methods. U–Th dating of the flowstones that cap the deposit, of speleothems formed along the cave walls, and of speleothems buried by the deposit at different elevations provides minimum and maximum ages of 74 and 175 ka, respectively, for the accumulation. The ages obtained by luminescence, electron spin resonance (ESR), amino acid racemisation (AAR), palaeomagnetism and U-series dating of bone are in good agreement with each other and are stratigraphically consistent. This well-dated faunal succession presents a unique opportunity to assess changes in the Pleistocene fauna of the Mediterranean coast over an interval of more than 100 ka.