Early Phases Of Training Research Articles

Training Methods of Multi-Label Prediction Classifiers for Hyperspectral Remote Sensing Images

Hyperspectral remote sensing images, with their amalgamation of spectral richness and geometric precision, encapsulate intricate, non-linear information that poses significant challenges to traditional machine learning methodologies. Deep learning techniques, recognised for their superior representation learning capabilities, exhibit enhanced proficiency in managing such intricate data. In this study, we introduce a novel approach in hyperspectral image analysis focusing on multi-label, patch-level classification, as opposed to applications in the literature concentrating predominantly on single-label, pixel-level classification for hyperspectral remote sensing images. The proposed model comprises a two-component deep learning network and employs patches of hyperspectral remote sensing scenes with reduced spatial dimensions yet with a complete spectral depth derived from the original scene. Additionally, this work explores three distinct training schemes for our network: Iterative, Joint, and Cascade. Empirical evidence suggests the Joint approach as the optimal strategy, but it requires an extensive search to ascertain the optimal weight combination of the loss constituents. The Iterative scheme facilitates feature sharing between the network components from the early phases of training and demonstrates superior performance with complex, multi-labelled data. Subsequent analysis reveals that models with varying architectures, when trained on patches derived and annotated per our proposed single-label sampling procedure, exhibit commendable performance.

Intrinsic Foot Muscle Exercises With and Without Electric Stimulation.

Exercising intrinsic foot muscles (IFMs) can improve dynamic balance and foot posture. The exercises are not intuitive and electrotherapy (neuromuscular electrical stimulation [NMES]) has been suggested to help individuals execute the exercises. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of training IFM program on dynamic balance and foot posture and compare traditional training methods (TRAIN) with traditional training plus NMES on the perceived workload of the exercises, balance, and foot posture. Randomized controlled trial. Thirty-nine participants were randomized to control, TRAIN, or NMES. TRAIN and NMES performed IFM exercises daily for 4weeks; NMES received electrotherapy during the first 2weeks of training. The Y-Balance test and arch height index were measured in all participants at baseline. The training groups were measured again at 2weeks; all participants were measured at 4weeks and 8weeks, after 4weeks of no training. Perceived workload (National Aeronautics and Space Administration Task Load Index) of exercises was assessed throughout the first 2weeks and at 4weeks. A 4-week IFM training program demonstrated increases in Y-Balance (P = .01) for TRAIN and in arch height index (seated P = .03; standing P = .02) for NMES, relative to baseline. NMES demonstrated improvement in Y-Balance (P = .02) and arch height index standing (P = .01) at 2weeks. There were no significant differences between the training groups. Groups were similar in the number responding to exercises in excess of minimal detectable change on all clinical measures. Perceived workload of the exercises decreased during the first 2weeks of training (P = .02), and more notably at 4weeks (P < .001). The groups did not differ in how they perceived the workload. A 4-week IFM training program improved dynamic balance and foot posture. Adding NMES in early phases of training provided early improvement in dynamic balance and foot posture, but did not affect perceived workload.

Does the reticulospinal tract mediate adaptation to resistance training in humans?

Resistance training increases volitional force-producing capacity, and it is widely accepted that such an increase is partly underpinned by adaptations in the central nervous system, particularly in the early phases of training. Despite this, the neural substrate(s) responsible for mediating adaptation remains largely unknown. Most studies have focused on the corticospinal tract, the main descending pathway controlling movement in humans, with equivocal findings. It is possible that neural adaptation to resistance training is mediated by other structures; one such candidate is the reticulospinal tract. The aim of this narrative mini-review is to articulate the potential of the reticulospinal tract to underpin adaptations in muscle strength. Specifically, we 1) discuss why the structure and function of the reticulospinal tract implicate it as a potential site for adaptation; 2) review the animal and human literature that supports the idea of the reticulospinal tract as an important neural substrate underpinning adaptation to resistance training; and 3) examine the potential methodological options to assess the reticulospinal tract in humans.

MP19-13 HAND DOMINANCE DECISION-MAKING AND OPERATING ROOM CHALLENGES EXPERIENCED BY LEFT-HANDED UROLOGY TRAINEES

You have accessJournal of UrologyCME1 May 2022MP19-13 HAND DOMINANCE DECISION-MAKING AND OPERATING ROOM CHALLENGES EXPERIENCED BY LEFT-HANDED UROLOGY TRAINEES Christopher Tam, Maia Anderson, Mary Byrnes, Julian Wan, and Bryan Sack Christopher TamChristopher Tam More articles by this author , Maia AndersonMaia Anderson More articles by this author , Mary ByrnesMary Byrnes More articles by this author , Julian WanJulian Wan More articles by this author , and Bryan SackBryan Sack More articles by this author View All Author Informationhttps://doi.org/10.1097/JU.0000000000002552.13AboutPDF ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints ShareFacebookLinked InTwitterEmail Abstract INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVE: Left-handed (LH) surgical trainees face unique challenges operating in a right-handed (RH) environment. This qualitative study aims to identify themes related to the operative difficulties encountered by LH urology trainees. METHODS: We conducted semi-structured interviews with LH trainees from surgical specialties at academic programs in the United States. The 6 urology trainee de-identified interview transcripts were analyzed iteratively, informed by interpretive description using MaxQDA20 software. RESULTS: Participants included 4 residents and 2 fellows from 5 urology programs. Three main themes emerged pertaining to decisions about operative hand dominance: expert advice, instrument challenges, and paradox of choice (Table 1). In expert advice, advice received from attendings during early phases of training, especially medical school, were critical determinants of their operative hand dominance. Advice received fell into two main categories: 1) recommendations to learn to operate right-handed from both right and left-handed surgeons, 2) advice about the importance of confidently choosing and maintaining a dominant operative hand through training. In instrument challenges, mechanical difficulties using RH instruments with their left-hand, especially needle drivers and suture scissors, influenced their decision to operate predominantly RH. In paradox of choice, trainees reported being encouraged to make their own choice about which hand to operate with, however, trainees also described feeling obligated to operate with their right-hand to accommodate their predominantly RH attendings. While trainees generally reported feeling like they made the correct decision, most described contemplating switching their operative hand dominance at some point during their career. CONCLUSIONS: Left-handed urology trainees report challenges with choosing hand dominance in the operating room secondary to use of RH instruments, receiving conflicting advice from surgical mentors, and using unnatural movements to adapt to a RH surgical setup. This increased awareness provides strategies to reduce barriers and increase inclusivity of LH trainees that could include LH surgical mentorship, procedural instruction, and instrumentation. Source of Funding: None © 2022 by American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.FiguresReferencesRelatedDetails Volume 207Issue Supplement 5May 2022Page: e312 Advertisement Copyright & Permissions© 2022 by American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.MetricsAuthor Information Christopher Tam More articles by this author Maia Anderson More articles by this author Mary Byrnes More articles by this author Julian Wan More articles by this author Bryan Sack More articles by this author Expand All Advertisement PDF DownloadLoading ...

97448 Biopsychosocial Determinants of Pain Assessment and Management - Medical and Surgical Trainees’ Perspective

ABSTRACT IMPACT: Better understanding how clinicians make decisions about pain management, particularly since our prior research has demonstrated that opioids prescribed at discharge is the strongest predictor of opioids taken, is critical to decrease high-risk medication prescribing while preserving high-quality care. OBJECTIVES/GOALS: (1) Identify major biological, psychological, and social determinants of medical and surgical residents’ pain management decisions; (2) Determine salient themes regarding the experience of residents in the management of acute and chronic pain METHODS/STUDY POPULATION: Focus groups of internal medicine and general surgery residents at an academic, tertiary care training hospital located in an urban setting were conducted. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, all focus groups were conducted virtually and occurred during required didactic sessions to facilitate participation. All interviews were recorded and transcribed. Two reviewers independently reviewed and coded the data following the principles of constructivist grounded theory. RESULTS/ANTICIPATED RESULTS: 42 residents participated in ten focus groups ranging in size from two to five individuals. Six themes emerged demonstrating salient BPS factors in pain management decisions: (1) patient and clinician expectations determine what is considered normal/acceptable; (2) inability of pain scales to reliably capture patient pain; (3) desire for more objective methods of pain assessment, while simultaneously recognizing that pain is an inherently subjective experience; (4) difficulty in determine when pain is 'real’ or 'legitimate'; (5) lack of education and protocols regarding pain management; (6) the importance of engaging other services such as acute pain service or nurse educators in complicated situations. Junior residents often expressed doubt in the appropriateness of their approaches and decisions. DISCUSSION/SIGNIFICANCE OF FINDINGS: Surgical and medical trainees routinely treat pain and may struggle, particularly in the early phases of training, to determine if pain levels are appropriate. There is also a lack of education and/or best practices for assessing and managing pain. These areas represent high-value, clinician-focused targets for future interventions to improve care.

A GPU Scheduling Framework to Accelerate Hyper-Parameter Optimization in Deep Learning Clusters

This paper proposes Hermes, a container-based preemptive GPU scheduling framework for accelerating hyper-parameter optimization in deep learning (DL) clusters. Hermes accelerates hyper-parameter optimization by time-sharing between DL jobs and prioritizing jobs with more promising hyper-parameter combinations. Hermes’s scheduling policy is grounded on the observation that good hyper-parameter combinations converge quickly in the early phases of training. By giving higher priority to fast-converging containers, Hermes’s GPU preemption mechanism can accelerate training. This enables users to find optimal hyper-parameters faster without losing the progress of a container. We have implemented Hermes over Kubernetes and compared its performance against existing scheduling frameworks. Experiments show that Hermes reduces the time for hyper-parameter optimization up to 4.04 times against previously proposed scheduling policies such as FIFO, round-robin (RR), and SLAQ, with minimal time-sharing overhead.

The resident physician as leader within the healthcare team

PurposeThe purpose of this study was to explore inter-professional clinicians’ perspectives on resident leadership in the context of inter-professional teams and to identify a definition for leadership in the clinical context. In 2015, CanMEDS changed the title of one of the core competencies from manager to leader. The shift in language was perceived by some as returning to traditional hierarchical and physician-dominant structures. The resulting uncertainty has resulted in a call to action to not only determine what physician leadership is but to also determine how to teach and assess it.Design/methodology/approachFocus groups and follow-up individual interviews were conducted with 23 inter-professional clinicians from three pediatric clinical service teams at a large, Canadian tertiary-level rehabilitation hospital. Qualitative thematic analysis was used to inductively analyze the data.FindingsData analysis resulted in one overarching theme: leadership is collaborative – and three related subthemes: leadership is shared; leadership is summative; and conceptualizations of leadership are shifting.Research limitations/implicationsNot all members of the three inter-professional teams were able to attend the focus group sessions because of scheduling conflicts. Participation of additional clinicians could have, therefore, affected the results of this study. The study was conducted locally at a single rehabilitation hospital, among Canadian pediatric clinicians, which highlights the need to explore conceptualization of leadership across different contexts.Practical implicationsThere is an evident need to prepare physicians to be leaders in both their daily clinical and academic practices. Therefore, more concerted efforts are required to develop leadership skills among residents. The authors postulate that continued integration of various inter-professional disciplines during the early phases of training is essential to foster collaborative leadership and trust.Originality/valueThe results of this study suggest that inter-professional clinicians view clinical leadership as collaborative and fluid and determined by the fit between tasks and team member expertise. Mentorship is important for increasing the ability of resident physicians to develop collaborative leadership roles within teams. The authors propose a collaborative definition of clinical leadership based on the results of this study: a shared responsibility that involves facilitation of dialog; the integration of perspectives and expertise; and collaborative planning for the purpose of exceptional patient care.

Real-Time Strategy Video Game Experience and Visual Perceptual Learning.

Visual perceptual learning (VPL) is defined as long-term improvement in performance on a visual-perception task after visual experiences or training. Early studies have found that VPL is highly specific for the trained feature and location, suggesting that VPL is associated with changes in the early visual cortex. However, the generality of visual skills enhancement attributable to action video-game experience suggests that VPL can result from improvement in higher cognitive skills. If so, experience in real-time strategy (RTS) video-game play, which may heavily involve cognitive skills, may also facilitate VPL. To test this hypothesis, we compared VPL between RTS video-game players (VGPs) and non-VGPs (NVGPs) and elucidated underlying structural and functional neural mechanisms. Healthy young human subjects underwent six training sessions on a texture discrimination task. Diffusion-tensor and functional magnetic resonance imaging were performed before and after training. VGPs performed better than NVGPs in the early phase of training. White-matter connectivity between the right external capsule and visual cortex and neuronal activity in the right inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) were greater in VGPs than NVGPs and were significantly correlated with RTS video-game experience. In both VGPs and NVGPs, there was task-related neuronal activity in the right IFG, ACC, and striatum, which was strengthened after training. These results indicate that RTS video-game experience, associated with changes in higher-order cognitive functions and connectivity between visual and cognitive areas, facilitates VPL in early phases of training. The results support the hypothesis that VPL can occur without involvement of only visual areas. Significance statement: Although early studies found that visual perceptual learning (VPL) is associated with involvement of the visual cortex, generality of visual skills enhancement by action video-game experience suggests that higher-order cognition may be involved in VPL. If so, real-time strategy (RTS) video-game experience may facilitate VPL as a result of heavy involvement of cognitive skills. Here, we compared VPL between RTS video-game players (VGPs) and non-VGPs (NVGPs) and investigated the underlying neural mechanisms. VGPs showed better performance in the early phase of training on the texture discrimination task and greater level of neuronal activity in cognitive areas and structural connectivity between visual and cognitive areas than NVGPs. These results support the hypothesis that VPL can occur beyond the visual cortex.

Progressive-Overload Whole-Body Vibration Training as Part of Periodized, Off-season Strength Training in Trained Women Athletes

The purpose was to examine the effects of progressive-overload, whole-body vibration (WBV) training on strength and power as part of a 15-week periodized, strength training (ST) program. Eighteen collegiate women athletes with ≥1 year of ST and no prior WBV training participated in the crossover design. Random assignment to 1 of the 2 groups followed pretests of seated medicine ball throw (SMBT), single-leg hop for distance (LSLH, RSLH), countermovement jump (CMJ), 3 repetition maximum (3RM) front squat (FS), pull-up (PU), and 3RM bench press (BP). Whole-body vibration was two 3-week phases of dynamic and static hold body weight exercises administered 2 d·wk in ST sessions throughout the 15-week off-season program. Total WBV exposure was 6 minutes broken into 30-second bouts with 60-second rest (1:2 work-to-relief ratio). Exercises, frequency, and amplitude progressed in intensity from the first 3-week WBV training to the second 3-week phase. Repeated-measures analysis of variances were used to analyze the SMBT, CMJ, LSLH, RSLH, FS, PU, and BP tests. Alpha level was p ≤ 0.05. Front squat, LSLH, and RSLH increased (p = 0.001) from pre- to posttest; FS increased from mid- to posttest. Pull-up increased (p = 0.008) from pre- to posttest. Seated medicine ball throw and BP showed a trend of increased performance from pre- to posttest (p = 0.11). Two 3-week phases of periodized, progressive-overload WBV + ST training elicited gains in strength and power during a 15-week off-season program. Greatest improvements in performance tests occurred in the initial WBV phase. Implementing WBV in conjunction with ST appears to be more effective in the early phases of training.

Su1571 A Randomized Trial of Endoscopic Simulator Training in First Year Gastroenterology Fellows

tablet application with an additional observer resulted in a 10.2% increase in the polyp detection rate, increasing the number of detected polyps by an average of 1.7 0.9 per procedure. Conclusions: Using the tablet software to increase the number of qualified participants is a valid approach to increasing the polyp detection rate for decreasing the incidence of colorectal cancer. The approach additionally allows for more effective medical training by enabling experienced physicians to more effectively highlight lesions and polyps using the endoscopic video. The proposed platform can be easily integrated into existing infrastructure for colonoscopy without interfering with the standard of care, and additionally be used for other types of endoscopy. Su1571 A Randomized Trial of Endoscopic Simulator Training in First Year Gastroenterology Fellows Pichamol Jirapinyo*, Vicki Bing, Nitin Kumar, Michele B. Ryan, Hiroyuki Aihara, Avlin B. Imaeda, Christopher C. Thompson Yale-New Haven Hospital, New Haven, CT; Division of Gastroenterology, Brigham & Women’s Hospital, Boston, MA Background: Training in endoscopy has traditionally relied upon clinical hands-on experience. Simulators may now allow the development of endoscopic skills in a non-clinical environment. Aim: To assess the effect of an endoscopic part-task simulator on trainees’ endoscopic performance. Methods: Simulator An endoscopic part-task training box consisting of 5 modules (snare polypectomy, retroflexion, torque, knob control and loop reduction/navigation) and a validated scoring system. Subjects: First year gastroenterology fellows from 2 academic institutions. Design: Fellows were randomized into 2 arms. The study arm practiced on the simulator for at least 45 minutes per week for the first 3 months of training, in addition to receiving traditional hands-on clinical training. The control arm received only hands-on clinical training. Outcomes: All fellows were assessed for their endoscopic skill performance using the Mayo Colonoscopy Skills Assessment Tool (MCSAT) and the simulator at month 0, 1 and 3. MCSAT scores, training box scores and the numbers of esophagoduodenoscopies (EGDs) and colonoscopies performed were collected. Statistical Analysis: Training box scores from the 2 arms were compared using a linear regression model adjusting for the numbers of EGDs and colonoscopies. Results: Ten first year gastroenterology fellows from 2 academic institutions participated in the study. Five were randomized into the study arm and 5 into the control arm. No participants had used the simulator prior to the study. Average numbers of prior EGDs and colonoscopies are shown in Table 1. There was no difference in total MCSAT hands-on skill scores between the 2 groups at month 1 (pO0.05), however, there was a trend for fellows in the simulator group taking less time (pZ0.09) to reach a farther landmark (hepatic flexure in simulator group vs. splenic flexure in control group (pZ0.22). Additionally, fellows in the study arm performed significantly better on the simulator at month 1 (Table 2; p!0.01), and showed significant improvement in training box performance from month 0 to month 1, compared to the control group (Table 2; p!0.05). At month 3, the control group eliminated this difference as reflected by similar MCSAT hands-on skill scores, time spent reaching the maximal insertion site, location of the farthest landmark reached without assistance and absolute simulator scores, compared to the simulator group (pO0.05 in all variables). Conclusion: The part-task endoscopic simulator provides a non-clinical environment for trainees to practice fundamental endoscopic maneuvers and become familiar with accessories prior to initiation of clinical cases, and during ongoing clinical training. This small sample size suggests that routine use of the simulator may improve technical endoscopic performance during the early phases of training, and larger studies are now needed. Table 1. Average numbers of esophagoduodenoscopies (EGDs) and colonoscopies (colons) performed www.giejournal.org Month 0 Month 1 Month 3 EGDs Colons EGDs Colons EGDs Colons Study arm (n [ 5) 4 4 31 21 62 38 Control arm (n [ 5) 4 1 24 20 51 25 Table 2. Average simulator scores

Step-by-step illustrated endoscopic extraperitoneal radical prostatectomy (EERP): tips and tricks to trifecta outcomes.

INTRODUCTION Laparoscopic prostatectomy has become a widely accepted and applied surgical method of localized prostate cancer treatment. The pearls of critical anatomical and technical features to optimal oncological and functional outcomes on radical prostatectomy are illustrated. Several aspects with respect to that must be recognized in the early phases of training to optimize trifecta outcomes: disease recurrence free, urinary continence and sexual functions preservation.

6-Weeks Resistance Training- And Retraining-Induced Muscle Hypertrophy And Strength Gains In Young Men

It is known that resistance training-induced muscle hypertrophy and strength gains are larger during the early phases of training compared to the late phases of training adaptation. However, it is unknown whether the muscular adaptation of retraining following a short term detraining period would be similar to that occurring during the initial training phase. PURPOSE: To investigate the effects of high-intensity resistance training and retraining following a short term detraining period on muscle size and strength. METHODS: 14 previously untrained young men were divided into two training groups: continuous training (CTR, n=7) or training/detraining (DTR, n=7). The subjects participated in high-intensity bench press exercise training (75% of one repetition maximal, 1-RM), 3 days per week for 15 weeks. The CTR group performed continuously over a 15 week period while the DTR group had a 3 week detraining period between wk-7 and wk-9. MRI-measured triceps and pectorals major muscle cross-sectional area (CSA) and maximal dynamic (bench press 1RM) and isometric (elbow extension MVC) strength were measured before and at the end of wk-6, wk-9, and wk-15. RESULTS: After the initial 6 weeks of training, increases (p<0.01) in bench press 1-RM, elbow extension MVC and triceps and pectorals major muscle CSA were similar between the CTR (19%, 11%, 9% and 20%, respectively) and DTR (21%, 14%, 8% and 18%) groups. During the 3 weeks detraining, however, muscle CSA decreased (-3% ∼ -7%, p<0.05) but strength was maintained (-2% ∼ 1%) in the DTR group while muscle size (4∼5%, p<0.05) and strength (∼8%) continued to increase for the CTR group. In the DTR group, the increases in strength and muscle CSA were similar between the initial 6 weeks training and the 6 weeks of retraining (15%, 7%, 7% and 12% [n=5], respectively). On the other hand, training adaptation during the final 6 weeks for the CTR group (8%, 4%, 2% and 3% [n=5], respectively) was significantly lower (p<0.05) compared with the initial 6 weeks of training. As a result, improvements in muscle CSA and strength were similar between the CTR and DTR groups. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that a short term detraining period does not inhibit muscle adaptations when compared to continuous training programs.

Similarity and Rules United: Similarity‐ and Rule‐Based Processing in a Single Neural Network

A central controversy in cognitive science concerns the roles of rules versus similarity. To gain some leverage on this problem, we propose that rule- versus similarity-based processes can be characterized as extremes in a multidimensional space that is composed of at least two dimensions: the number of features (Pothos, 2005) and the physical presence of features. The transition of similarity- to rule-based processing is conceptualized as a transition in this space. To illustrate this, we show how a neural network model uses input features (and in this sense produces similarity-based responses) when it has a low learning rate or in the early phases of training, but it switches to using self-generated, more abstract features (and in this sense produces rule-based responses) when it has a higher learning rate or is in the later phases of training. Relations with categorization and the psychology of learning are pointed out.

Effects of a Short-Term Resistance Program Using Elastic Bands Versus Weight Machines for Sedentary Middle-Aged Women

This study was designed to determine whether different effects on functional capacity and body composition were produced by using different devices (elastic bands (EBs) versus weight machines (WMs)) with the same resistance training program. Forty-five healthy sedentary middle-aged women volunteers were chosen and randomly assigned to 1 of 3 groups: 21 subjects trained using EBs (EBG), 14 in trained using WMs (WMG), and 10 were controls (CG). Both exercise groups trained with a periodized muscular endurance program twice a week for 10 weeks, with a total of 6 exercises per session for the major muscle groups. Exercise intensity was equalized by jointly monitoring the same targeted number of repetitions (TNRs) and rate of perceived exertion in active muscles (RPE-AM). Functional capacity was assessed by using knee push-up (KPU) and 60-second squat (S) tests. Body composition was measured using an 8-polar bioelectrical impedance analyzer. The results for both the EBG and WMG show a decrease in fat mass (p = 0.05 and p < 0.01, respectively) and an increase in both the fat-free mass (p < 0.05 and p < 0.01, respectively) and the number of repetitions in the KPU (p < 0.05 and p < 0.01, respectively) and S tests (p < 0.01 in both). None of the variables measured for the CG varied significantly. It can be concluded that, independently of the device used, the combined monitoring of TNRs and RPE-AM can be a valid tool for controlling the resistance exercise intensity and can lead to healthy adaptations. EBs can thus offer significant physiological benefits that are comparable to those obtained from WMs in the early phase of strength training of sedentary middle-aged women.

Learning-Induced Enduring Changes in Functional Connectivity among Prefrontal Cortical Neurons

Current thinking about how memories are stored in the brain has been profoundly influenced by Donald O. Hebb's cell assembly hypothesis, which posits that (1) learning produces a stable alteration in patterns of connectivity among repeatedly coactivated neurons, and (2) memory retrieval involves reactivation of those altered patterns of connectivity. However, learning-induced changes in connectivity that persist over long periods of time have not been clearly demonstrated. In the present study, two spatial navigation tasks and a long-term ensemble recording technique are used to describe long-lasting modifications in functional connectivity (FC) (defined as changes in synchronous firing) of prefrontal cortical neurons in behaving rats. Animals were initially trained to alternate visiting two spatial locations on a figure-8-shaped maze to obtain a reward (alternating task 1). Afterward, while continuing on task 1, animals were additionally trained to visit only one spatial location on the same maze to obtain a reward (unilateral task 2). Multiple single units were recorded while rats were undergoing acquisition, retention, and performance of both tasks. Our data indicate that correlated firing of prefrontal cortical neurons changed significantly in early phases of training when learning rate was maximal but became progressively smaller in later phases when learning reached asymptote. After animals became proficient, FC remained constant, although neuronal activities varied across two different tasks. The present finding of negatively accelerated changes in FC confirms associative learning theories and provides crucial neurophysiological evidence for Hebb's hypothesis.

Performance of α7 nicotinic receptor null mutants is impaired in appetitive learning measured in a signaled nose poke task

Wild-type and mutant mice lacking expression of α5, α7, β2, β3, or β4 neuronal nicotinic cholinergic receptors (nAChRs) were compared on a signaled nose poke task, a multi-phased task used to measure appetitive learning and impulsivity. In the early phases of training, mutants of all nicotinic lines did not differ compared to wild types in the days to reach criterion when mice were required to nose poke for a sucrose reward on FR1 or FR3 schedules, or in their ability to respond to an auditory clicker to receive a sucrose reward. However, mutants lacking α7 nAChRs, but not lines lacking other nAChRs, showed impairments when task difficulty was increased such that an auditory stimulus was presented on a variable schedule and mice were required to withhold their responses until the presentation of the auditory cue to obtain a reward. α7 mutants were impaired compared to wild types in appetitive learning as measured by the percentage of conditioned responses but overcame their deficits with extensive training for 10 days. However, when efficiency ratios were used to measure impulsivity, α7 mutants exhibited lower efficiency ratios even after 10 days of training. These results support a role of the α7 nicotinic receptor in mediating appetitive learning and suggest a potential role for the α7 nAChRs in the regulation of behavioral disinhibition.

The effects of amygdala lesions on hippocampal activity and classical eyeblink conditioning in rats

The hippocampus and the amygdala have long been associated with memory, emotion, and motivated behaviors. Although the role of these two brain areas in learning a simple, discrete motor response has been well studied, a definitive theory concerning their functions remains elusive. The present experiment involved selective lesions of the central nucleus (CE) or the basolateral nucleus (BA) of the amygdala in rats followed by single-unit analyses of hippocampal CA1 subfield activity during classical eye blink conditioning. Removal of CE or BA adversely affected the development of conditioned responding. Differences between groups in the patterns of hippocampal activity were observed. Similar to previous rabbit studies, hippocampal activity recorded from sham rats showed that CA1 cells became active during the CS–US period as conditioning progressed with activity especially prevalent just prior to US onset. Increased activity over training was seen during the CS–US interval in CE-lesioned rats, but the pattern differed from control rats—uniform excitation was seen across the entire CS–US period. BA-lesioned rats initially showed uniform CS–US period activation in early phases of training, but then showed patterns of hippocampal activity that resembled control rats in later stages of conditioning. The data suggest that the amygdala may play a modulatory role in the acquisition of conditioned eye blink responses and also in the formation of learning-related activity in the hippocampus.

An approach for practice administration and interpretation of the MMPI-2.

This paper discusses one teaching approach for practice administration and interpretation of the MMPI-2 in a graduate course on personality assessment. After graduate students practice scoring and interpreting the MMPI-2 inventory completed with specific response sets and practice interpreting MMPI-2 profiles of cases prepared for teaching and practice in interpretation, students practice administering and interpreting the MMPI-2 for volunteer test-takers who complete the inventory with a simulated stress response set. The simulated stress response set approach may be helpful in providing skill-building practice in the early phases of learning the MMPI-2 with volunteer test-takers, while minimizing some of the ethical concerns raised regarding actual administrations with nonclient volunteers in the early phases of training in assessment.

Effect of age on perceptual learning of second-language phonetic contrasts

This paper is a mid-term report on an examination of the effect of age on learning new second language (L2) phonetic categories. Approximately 1000 Japanese speakers of various ages, from children (10 years old) to elderly (70 years old), were trained to identify English words produced by native speakers of American English. The words used minimally contrasted in /r/–/l/ for all age groups (10–70), and words contrasting in /b/–/v/ and /s/–/th/ were additionally used only for the younger age groups (10–22). A pretest–post-test design was administered in which the effect of the training was evaluated by the amount of improvement in accuracy from the pretest to the post-test. Results obtained at this point suggest that: (1) in general, the amount of improvement decreases with age; (2) during the early phases of training, the /r/–/l/ distinction is an extremely difficult one for Japanese children; and (3) elderly subjects, even in their 60s, can improve significantly. Implications for the theories of acquisition of speech perception will be discussed. [Work supported by TAO, Japan.]

Development of colonoscopy teaching simulation.

After 17 years of prototyping, a first release version of the St Mark's Hospital teaching simulator is in final preparation. Advances in computer processing power and graphics cards make it possible to achieve real-time processing of colon and endoscope characteristics and a simulated endoscopic view at an acceptable cost. Realistic feel or "force feedback" for all instrument controls and shaft movements is incorporated. To make the simulator more than a "video game", a package of teaching and assessment features is to be incorporated, including interactive animated graphics to explain particular endoscope loops and situations and the variations of colonic anatomy that are typically encountered. Simulation should spare patients from being used for the early phases of training and should speed up and quantify the learning process. Simulators may introduce even experienced endoscopists to some of the advanced options available in current or future endoscopes or accessories, as well as the use of imminent new technology such as the magnetic imaging system.