Early Massive Transfusion Research Articles

An Assessment of Clinical Accuracy of Vital Sign-based Triage Tools Among U.S. and Coalition Forces.

Early appropriate allocation of resources for critically injured combat casualties is essential. This is especially important when inundated with an overwhelming number of casualties where limited resources must be efficiently allocated, such as during mass casualty events. There are multiple scoring systems utilized in the prehospital combat setting, including the shock index (SI), modified shock index (MSI), simple triage and rapid treatment (START), revised trauma score (RTS), new trauma score (NTS), Glasgow Coma Scale + age + pressure (GAP), and the mechanism + GAP (MGAP) score. The optimal score for application to the combat trauma population remains unclear. This is a secondary analysis of a previously described dataset from the Department of Defense Trauma Registry from January 1, 2007 through March 17, 2020. We constructed univariable analyses to determine the area under the receiving operator characteristic (AUROC) for the scoring systems of interest. Our primary outcomes were early death (within 24 hours) or early massive transfusion, as defined by ≥3 units. There were 12,268 casualties that met inclusion criteria. There were 168 (1%) who died within the first 24 hours and 2082 (17%) that underwent significant transfusion within the first 24 hours. When assessing the predictive capabilities for death within 24 hours, the AUROCs were 0.72 (SI), 0.69 (MSI), 0.89 (START), 0.90 (RTS), 0.83 (NTS), 0.90 (GAP), and 0.91 (MGAP). The AUROCs for massive transfusion were 0.89 (SI), 0.89 (MSI), 0.82 (START), 0.81 (RTS), 0.83 (NTS), 0.85 (MGAP), and 0.86 (GAP). This study retrospectively applied seven triage tools to a database of 12,268 cases from the Department of Defense Trauma Registry to evaluate their performance in predicting early death or massive transfusion in combat. All scoring systems performed well with an AUROC >0.8 for both outcomes. Although the SI and MSI performed best for predicting massive transfusion (both had an AUROC of 0.89), they ranked last for assessment of mortality within 24 hours, with the other tools performing well. START, RTS, NTS, MGAP and GAP reliably identified early death and need for massive transfusion, with MGAP and GAP performing the best overall. These findings highlight the importance of assessing triage tools to best manage resources and ultimately preserve lives of traumatically wounded warfighters. Further studies are needed to explain the surprising performance discrepancy of the SI and MSI in predicting early death and massive transfusion.

The nature and timing of coagulation dysfunction in a cohort of trauma patients in the Australian pre-hospital setting

BackgroundAcute Traumatic Coagulopathy (ATC) is a complex pathological process that is associated with patient mortality and increased blood transfusion requirements. It is evident on hospital arrival, but there is a paucity of information about the nature of ATC and the characteristics of patients that develop ATC in the pre-hospital setting. The objective of this study was to describe the nature and timing of coagulation dysfunction in a cohort of injured patients and to report on patient and pre-hospital factors associated with the development of ATC in the field. MethodsThis was a prospective observational study of a convenience sample of trauma patients. Patients had blood taken during the pre-hospital phase of care and evaluated for derangements in Conventional Coagulation Assays (CCA) and Rotational Thromboelastometry (ROTEM). Associations between coagulation derangement and pre-hospital factors and patient outcomes were evaluated. ResultsA total of 216 patients who had either a complete CCA or ROTEM were included in the analysis. One hundred and eighty (83 %) of patients were male, with a median injury severity score of 17 [interquartile range (IQR) 10–27] and median age of 34 years [IQR = 25.0–52.0]. Hypofibrinogenemia was the predominant abnormality seen, (CCA Hypofibrinogenemia: 51/193, 26 %; ROTEM hypofibrinogenemia: 65/204, 32 %). Increased CCA derangement, the presence of ROTEM coagulopathy, worsening INR, worsening FibTEM and decreasing fibrinogen concentration, were all associated with both mortality and early massive transfusion. ConclusionClinically significant, multifaceted coagulopathy develops early in the clinical course, with hypofibrinogenemia being the predominant coagulopathy. In keeping with the ED literature, pre-hospital coagulation dysfunction was associated with mortality and early massive transfusion. Further work is required to identify strategies to identify and guide the pre-hospital management of the coagulation dysfunction seen in trauma.

The National Blood Shortage-An Impetus for Change.

The National Blood Shortage-An Impetus for Change.

Impact of early massive transfusion and blood component ratios in patients undergoing left ventricular assist device implantation.

This study evaluates the impact of early massive transfusion and blood component ratios on outcomes following left ventricular assist device (LVAD) implantation. Adults undergoing LVAD implantation between 2009 and 2018 at a single institution were included. Transfusions were analyzed during the intraoperative and the initial 24-h postoperative period. Patients were stratified into massive and nonmassive transfusion groups. The primary outcome was survival, and secondary outcomes included postoperative complications. Sub-analyses were performed to evaluate the impact of balanced transfusion. A total of 278 patients were included. A total of 45.3% (n = 126) required massive transfusions. The massive transfusion group experienced significantly higher rates of postimplant adverse events, including reoperation, renal failure, and hepatic dysfunction (all, p ≤ .05). Furthermore, the massive transfusion group had significantly lower 30-day, 90-day, 1-year, 2-year, and overall survival rates following LVAD implantation (all, p < .05). In multivariable analysis, massive transfusion significantly impacted overall risk-adjusted mortality rate (hazard ratio: 2.402, 95% confidence Interval: 1.677-3.442, p < .001). In the sub-analyses evaluating the impact of balanced massive transfusion, balanced fresh frozen plasma to packed red blood cell (pRBC) transfusion did not provide any survival benefit (all, p > .05). However, balanced platelet to pRBC massive transfusion did improve 2-year and overall mortality rates in the massive transfusion cohort (both, p ≤ .05). This study demonstrates a significant association between early massive transfusion and adverse outcomes following LVAD implantation. Balancing platelet to pRBC transfusion in the early postoperative period may help mitigate some of these detrimental effects of massive transfusion on subsequent survival.

Development of a field artificial intelligence triage tool: Confidence in the prediction of shock, transfusion, and definitive surgical therapy in patients with truncal gunshot wounds.

In-field triage tools for trauma patients are limited by availability of information, linear risk classification, and a lack of confidence reporting. We therefore set out to develop and test a machine learning algorithm that can overcome these limitations by accurately and confidently making predictions to support in-field triage in the first hours after traumatic injury. Using an American College of Surgeons Trauma Quality Improvement Program-derived database of truncal and junctional gunshot wound (GSW) patients (aged 16-60 years), we trained an information-aware Dirichlet deep neural network (field artificial intelligence triage). Using supervised training, field artificial intelligence triage was trained to predict shock and the need for major hemorrhage control procedures or early massive transfusion (MT) using GSW anatomical locations, vital signs, and patient information available in the field. In parallel, a confidence model was developed to predict the true-class probability (scale of 0-1), indicating the likelihood that the prediction made was correct, based on the values and interconnectivity of input variables. A total of 29,816 patients met all the inclusion criteria. Shock, major surgery, and early MT were identified in 13.0%, 22.4%, and 6.3% of the included patients, respectively. Field artificial intelligence triage achieved mean areas under the receiver operating characteristic curve of 0.89, 0.86, and 0.82 for prediction of shock, early MT, and major surgery, respectively, for 80/20 train-test splits over 1,000 epochs. Mean predicted true-class probability for errors/correct predictions was 0.25/0.87 for shock, 0.30/0.81 for MT, and 0.24/0.69 for major surgery. Field artificial intelligence triage accurately identifies potential shock in truncal GSW patients and predicts their need for MT and major surgery, with a high degree of certainty. The presented model is an important proof of concept. Future iterations will use an expansion of databases to refine and validate the model, further adding to its potential to improve triage in the field, both in civilian and military settings. Prognostic, Level III.

The Extremity/Mechanism/Shock Index/GCS (EMS-G) score: A novel pre-hospital scoring system for early and appropriate MTP activation

BackgroundNumerous in-hospital scoring systems to activate massive transfusion protocols (MTP) have been proposed; however, to date, pre-hospital scoring systems have not been robustly validated. Many trauma centers do not have blood or pre-thawed plasma available in the trauma bay, leading to delays in balanced transfusion. This study aims to assess pre-hospital injury and physiologic parameters to develop a pre-hospital scoring system predictive of need for massive transfusion (MT) prior to patient arrival. MethodsA retrospective review of all adult full and partial trauma team activations from July 2014–July 2018 from an urban level 2 trauma center was performed utilizing our trauma registry. Stepwise logistic regression analysis was performed to develop a new scoring system, with point totals assigned proportional to the odds ratios of requiring MT for each variable. Internal validation of the EMS-G score was performed using a subset of the data which was not utilized for development of the scoring system, and sensitivity and specificity were compared to previously validated in-hospital scoring systems applied in the pre-hospital setting. Results763 patients were included with 94 patients (12.3%) receiving early MT, defined as 4 units pRBC in 4 h or ED death. In-hospital models for predicting MT such as Assessment of Blood Consumption (ABC) or Shock Index (SI) have sensitivities and specificities of 46/85% and 94/79% respectively for early MTP utilization based on pre-hospital data. Pre-hospital variables found to be predictive of MT were used to develop the EMS-G (Extremity, Mechanism, Shock Index, GCS) score. This system assigns obvious extremity injury–1-point, penetrating mechanism −2 points, shock index ≥0.9–2 points, GCS ≤8–3 points. A score of 3 or greater was chosen to maximize sensitivity and specificity for pre-hospital MT activation. EMS-G score based on pre-hospital report is 89% sensitive, 84% specific, with a PPV of 44% and NPV of 98% for early MT. Using this system, 25% of full and partial trauma team activations met criteria for pre-hospital MTP activation. ConclusionThe EMS-G Score has increased sensitivity and specificity compared to the ABC Score in the pre-hospital setting and appears more appropriate than shock index alone at predicting massive transfusion. This scoring system allows trauma centers to activate MTP prior to patient arrival to ensure early and appropriate blood product administration without blood product wastage.

A prospective study in severely injured patients reveals an altered gut microbiome is associated with transfusion volume.

Traumatic injury can lead to a compromised intestinal epithelial barrier and inflammation. While alterations in the gut microbiome of critically injured patients may influence clinical outcomes, the impact of trauma on gut microbial composition is unknown. Our objective was to determine if the gut microbiome is altered in severely injured patients and begin to characterize changes in the gut microbiome due to time and therapeutic intervention. We conducted a prospective, observational study in adult patients (n = 72) sustaining severe injury admitted to a Level I Trauma Center. Healthy volunteers (n = 13) were also examined. Fecal specimens were collected on admission to the emergency department and at 3, 7, 10, and 13 days (±2 days) following injury. Microbial DNA was isolated for 16s rRNA sequencing, and α and β diversities were estimated, according to taxonomic classification against the Greengenes database. The gut microbiome of trauma patients was altered on admission (i.e., within 30 minutes following injury) compared to healthy volunteers. Patients with an unchanged gut microbiome on admission were transfused more RBCs than those with an altered gut microbiome (p < 0.001). Although the gut microbiome started to return to a β-diversity profile similar to that of healthy volunteers over time, it remained different from healthy controls. Alternatively, α diversity initially increased postinjury, but subsequently decreased during the hospitalization. Injured patients on admission had a decreased abundance of traditionally beneficial microbial phyla (e.g., Firmicutes) with a concomitant decrease in opportunistic phyla (e.g., Proteobacteria) compared to healthy controls (p < 0.05). Large amounts of blood products and RBCs were both associated with higher α diversity (p < 0.001) and a β diversity clustering closer to healthy controls. The human gut microbiome changes early after trauma and may be aided by early massive transfusion. Ultimately, the gut microbiome of trauma patients may provide valuable diagnostic and therapeutic insight for the improvement of outcomes postinjury. Prognostic and Epidemiological, level III.

Lactate as an Early Predictor for Early Massive Transfusion in Trauma Patients: A Retrospective Study

ObjectiveTransfusion is a key treatment for patients with hemorrhage. Early massive transfusion (EMT) is defined as transfusion of 10 or more units of red blood cells (RBC) within the first 6 hours. We attempted to determine whether metabolic markers can be used as predictors for EMT.MethodWe retrospectively reviewed outcomes in 71 patients who visited the emergency department within 12 hours after trauma and received at least 1 unit of RBC within 24 hours between January 2008 and June 2010.ResultsOf the 71 patients, 54 were male and 17 were female; their mean age was 50.3±17.7 years. Of these, 15 required EMT and 56 did not; these patients received 17.7±13.1 and 2.8±2.3 units of RBCs, respectively. There were significant differences between EMT and non‐EMT groups in injury severity score (ISS; p=0.001), systolic blood pressure (SBP; p=0.010), base deficit (p=0.003), and lactate concentration (p=0.001). Logistic regression analysis showed that SBP &lt;90 mmHg (odds ratio [OR] 11.71, 95% CI 1.83‐74.77, p=0.009), ISS ≥25 (OR 23.39, 95% CI 1.87‐293.23, p=0.015), and lactate ≥3.5 mmol/L (OR 6.99, 95% CI 1.10‐44.33, p=0.039) were significant predictors of EMT. The area under the curve for ≥3.5 mmol/L lactate was 0.79 (p=0.001), with a sensitivity of 76.7% and a specificity of 67.8%. The 30‐day mortality rate was significantly higher in patients with lactate ≥3.5 mmol/L than in those with lactate &lt;3.5 mmol/L (p=0.002).ConclusionLactate concentration is an important predictor of the need for EMT and should be considered in the initial phase of trauma resuscitation to prepare for massive transfusion.

Hemostatic resuscitation with plasma and platelets in trauma

Background:Continued hemorrhage remains a major contributor of mortality in massively transfused patients and controversy regarding the optimal management exists although recently, the concept of hemostatic resuscitation, i.e., providing large amount of blood products to critically injured patients in an immediate and sustained manner as part of an early massive transfusion protocol has been introduced. The aim of the present review was to investigate the potential effect on survival of proactive administration of plasma and/or platelets (PLT) in trauma patients with massive bleeding.Materials and Methods:English databases were searched for reports of trauma patients receiving massive transfusion (10 or more red blood cell (RBC) within 24 hours or less from admission) that tested the effects of administration of plasma and/or PLT in relation to RBC concentrates on survival from January 2005 to November 2010. Comparison between highest vs lowest blood product ratios and 30-day mortality was performed.Results:Sixteen studies encompassing 3,663 patients receiving high vs low ratios were included. This meta-analysis of the pooled results revealed a substantial statistical heterogeneity (I2 = 58%) and that the highest ratio of plasma and/or PLT or to RBC was associated with a significantly decreased mortality (OR: 0.49; 95% confidence interval: 0.43-0.57; P<0.0001) when compared with lowest ratio.Conclusion:Meta-analysis of 16 retrospective studies concerning massively transfused trauma patients confirms a significantly lower mortality in patients treated with the highest fresh frozen plasma (FFP) and/or PLT ratio when compared with the lowest FFP and/or PLT ratio. However, optimal ranges of FFP: RBC and PLT : RBC should be established in randomized controlled trials.

Mortalidad de transfusión masiva temprana en pacientes con trauma penetrante en el hospital universitario San Jorge de Pereira

Violence and accidents are frequent causes of trauma in Colombia. Different alternatives on the correct handling of traumatized patients have been elaborated due to the need to improve protocols to modify in a favorable way the prognosis of patients; one of these has been the implementation of early massive hemotransfusion. A study was realized with the aim to identify the number of patients admitted to the Hospital Universitario San Jorge de Pereira with penetrating trauma to neck, thorax, abdomen and extremities, that fulfilled criteria for early massive hemo transfusion and to determine the percentage of those who received transfusions during the months of February and March of 2010. From this, a descriptive study including 64 clinical histories of patients with diagnosis of penetrating trauma in the anatomical zones already described was carried out, admitted to the Hospital Universitario San Jorge de Pereira using an instrument that included the criteria for early hemotransfusion and some epidemiological variables. The results reflect that 3% of the patients included, had criteria for early massive transfusion, these criteria was not used in its protocol of resuscitation and 97% of the studied patients did not fulfill transfusion criteria. In order to determine the usefulness of the early massive transfusion in the Hospital Universitario San Jorge, it is required the implementation of resuscitation protocols in which criteria of early transfusion are included, with the purpose of being able to evaluate survival in later investigations.

Emergency department blood transfusion predicts early massive transfusion and early blood component requirement

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the ability of uncrossmatched transfusions in the emergency department (ED) to predict early (< 6 hr) massive transfusion (MT) of red blood cells (RBCs) and blood components. All patients admitted to a Level 1 trauma center between July 2005 and June 2007 who received any transfusions and were transported directly from the scene of injury were included. Early MT was defined as the need for 10 U or more or RBCs in the first 6 hours. Early MT plasma was defined as 6 U or more of plasma in the first 6 hours. Early MT platelets (PLTs) were defined as two or more apheresis transfusions in the first 6 hours. Univariate and multivariate analyses were performed. A total of 485 patients (34%) received ED transfusions (ED RBC+) and 956 (66%) did not receive ED transfusions (ED RBC-). ED RBC+ patients were younger, were more likely to be male, and arrived with more severe injuries. Multivariate regression identified ED transfusion of uncrossmatched RBC as an independent predictor of requiring early MT of RBCs (odds ratio [OR], 3.5; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.36-7.59; p = 0.001), plasma (OR, 2.7; 95% CI, 1.66-4.39; p < 0.001), and PLTs (OR, 1.9; 95% CI, 1.08-3.41; p = 0.025). Patients receiving uncrossmatched RBCs in the ED are more than three times more likely to receive early MT of RBCs. Additionally, patients transfused with ED RBCs are more likely to receive 6 units or more of plasma and two or more apheresis PLT transfusions. Given these findings, ED transfusion of uncrossmatched RBCs should be considered a potential trigger for activation of an institution's MT protocol.

Early massive transfusion in trauma patients: Canadian single-centre retrospective cohort study

To determine associations between red blood cell (RBC) transfusion and early and late clinical outcomes in massively transfused adult trauma patients. A retrospective cohort study (1992-2001) including 260 patients receiving >or=10 RBC units <or=24 hr after admission to a university-affiliated trauma centre. We extracted demographic and clinical data and used multivariable regression to determine independent effects of RBC transfusion on clinical outcomes. Patients had a high (mean [standard deviation]) injury severity score (ISS) (42.5 [15.1]), a high admission sequential organ failure assessment (SOFA) score (8.4 [3.8]), and a high hospital mortality (58.5%). They received 38 (25-64) (median [interquartile range]) blood components within 48 hr, including 19 (14-28) RBC units. For 143 patients surviving >or=48 hr, the maximum SOFA score was associated with RBC units transfused before 48 hr (linear regression beta coefficient 0.075, P < 0.0001), lower nadir hemoglobin before 48 hr (0.034, P = 0.03), age (0.032, P = 0.015), and admission SOFA (0.59, P < 0.0001). The RBC units transfused by 48 hr were not associated with either hospital mortality (n = 35) among patients surviving >or=48 hr (independent predictors, age [logistic regression odds ratio (OR) 1.06, 95% confidence interval 1.03-1.10], ISS [OR 1.07, 1.02-1.13], and maximum SOFA score [OR 1.56, 1.27-1.93]) or 48-hr mortality (n = 117) (independent predictors, admission SOFA [1.65, 1.45-1.88] and later year of hospital admission [OR 1.15, 1.02-1.29]). Hospital mortality is high among massively transfused trauma patients. Among early survivors, 48-hr RBC transfusion volume is associated with increased organ dysfunction, but not hospital mortality. Also, it is not associated with 48-hr mortality. Future research should continue to explore methods to improve hemostasis and minimize the need for RBC transfusion.

Is there a role for aggressive use of fresh frozen plasma in massive transfusion of civilian trauma patients?

Background Damage control resuscitation (DCR) with early plasma in combat casualties requiring massive transfusion (MT) decreases early deaths from bleeding. Methods To ascertain the potential role of early plasma DCR in civilian MT, we queried a prospective traumatic shock database of 383 civilians. Results Ninety-three (24%) of the traumatic shock civilians received a MT, of which 26 (28%) died early, predominantly from bleeding within 6 hours. Comparatively, this early MT death cohort arrived in more severe shock and were coagulopathic (mean INR 2.4). In the critical period of MT (ie, the first 3 hours), these patients received 20 U of packed red blood cells (PRBCs) but only 4 U of fresh frozen plasma (FFP). They remained severely acidotic and their coagulopathy worsened as they exsanquinated. Conclusion Civilians who arrived in traumatic shock, required a MT, and died early had worsening coagulopathy, which was not treated. DCR with FFP may have a role in civilian trauma.

Massive Transfusion in Trauma Patients: Tissue Hemoglobin Oxygen Saturation Predicts Poor Outcome

Severely bleeding trauma patients requiring massive transfusion (MT) often experience poor outcomes. Our purpose was to determine the potential role of near infrared spectrometry derived tissue hemoglobin oxygen saturation (StO2) monitoring in early prediction of MT, and in the identification of those MT patients who will have poor outcomes. Data from a prospective multi-institution StO2 monitoring study were analyzed to determine the current epidemiology of MT (defined as transfusion volume >/=10 units packed red blood cells in 24 hours of hospitalization). Multivariate logistic regression was used to develop prediction models. Seven US level I trauma centers (TC) enrolled 383 patients. 114 (30%) required MT. MT progressed rapidly (40% exceeded MT threshold 2 hours after TC arrival, 80% after 6 hours). One third of MT patients died. Two thirds of deaths were due to early exsanguination and two thirds of early exsanguination patients died within 6 hours. One third of the early MT survivors developed multiple organ dysfunction syndrome. MT could be predicted with standard, readily available clinical data within 30 minutes and 60 minutes of TC arrival (area under the receiver operating characteristic curve = 0.78 and 0.80). In patients who required MT, StO2 was the only consistent predictor of poor outcome (multiple organ dysfunction syndrome or death). MT progresses rapidly to significant morbidity and mortality despite level I TC care. Patients who require MT can be predicted early, and persistent low StO2 identifies those MT patients destined to have poor outcome. The ultimate goal is to identify these high risk patients as early as possible to test new strategies to improve outcome. Further validation studies are needed to analyze appropriate allocation and study appropriate use of damage control interventions.