Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Research Articles

CritSEM: Advancing QuantCrit to Examine Racialized Resegregation in Special Education

The field of education urgently needs research, aligned with QuantCrit, to disrupt the racialized overrepresentation [resegregation] of Black and Latinx students in special education. Our concern about how statistics have been (mis)applied motivated us to consider the possibility of quantitative methods for use in educational research that aims to dismantle white supremacy. Therefore, we developed CritSEM (Critical Structural Equation Modeling) as a methodological intervention for the purpose of telling a Critical Race Counterstory. Specifically, we examined the extent that anti-racist educators can disrupt processes causing the resegregation of Black and Latinx students in special education, using restricted data from the 2011 Early Childhood Longitudinal Study. Our study concludes with a discussion and implications about working toward an anti-racist special education system and applying QuantCrit in advanced statistical methods.

Latino Family Engagement and Student Outcomes in Early Elementary School: Evidence from Two National Datasets

ABSTRACT Family engagement in children’s schooling is important. Research indicates that Latino families often utilize home-based practices (e.g. reading, telling stories, singing, counting) over school-based involvement (e.g. participating in school events and committees, volunteering in the classroom). Using an assets-based approach, the present study considers both school- and home-based forms of engagement for Latino families. Drawing upon data from two large, nationally representative datasets, the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 2010–11 (ECLS-K:2011; N = 4,590) and the Head Start Impact Study (HSIS; N = 1,670), this study seeks to examine national patterns of Latino family school- and home-based engagement in kindergarten, and how such engagement relates to child academic, cognitive, and behavioral outcomes in early elementary school. Descriptive findings show high levels of Latino family participation in a variety of both home-based academic activities and school-based activities. Regression analyses indicate an association between Latino family engagement and child outcomes, most evident in school-based engagement. Implications for educators, schools, and research are discussed.

Multidimensional patterns of early care and education access through a family centered lens

Despite evidence of the benefits of early care and education (ECE) for child development and family employment, the supply of providers is scarce and variable; leading many families with young children to experience limited and inequitable access. To examine the multidetermined nature of access, this study leverages a multidimensional, family-centered definition and a nationally representative sample of families of preschoolers from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study – Birth Cohort to examine (1) patterns of access-related features present in preschool-age children's ECE arrangements, and (2) child characteristics, household circumstances, and care setting type that may be related to patterns of access. Latent class analysis model enumeration revealed five latent classes of children's nonparental care arrangements along features of accessibility: High Across Most Access Features (26.4 %), Single, Long-Term Provider (30.1 %), Limited Across Most Access Features (11.6 %), Low Affordability, Multiple Providers (10.1 %), and High Affordability, Recent Transition (21.8 %). These results suggested many children were in ECE that met multiple dimensions of access, with others in care arrangements that reflected trade-offs. Children were also differentially classified into types of ECE arrangements in relation to care setting type, race/ethnicity, income, household urbanicity, and parental employment. The implications of investigating ECE access as a multidimensional construct, and recommendations for how ECE providers and policy can more closely align with family needs are discussed.

The role of school safety perceptions in childhood asthma diagnosis disparities.

Childhood racial and ethnic asthma disparities in the United States are the consequence of structural inequities such as those in socioeconomic status (SES) and exposure to violence, but little research has explored the role of the school environment in perpetuating racial and ethnic disparities. This study examines associations between perceptions of unsafe school environments (USEs) and subsequent asthma diagnosis for elementary-aged children and the extent to which USE mediates relations from SES and race/ethnicity to asthma diagnosis for Black, Latinx, and non-Latinx White children. We conducted a secondary analysis of data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study. Structural equation modeling was used to evaluate the association between USE and subsequent asthma diagnosis, controlling for child sex, and indirect effects of SES and race/ethnicity on asthma diagnosis via USE. For 6,532 children, USE in second grade positively predicted new asthma diagnoses in third grade and mediated the association between SES and new asthma diagnosis. SES and USE serially mediated the relationship between race/ethnicity and asthma diagnosis. Identifying as non-Latinx White was associated with a lower likelihood of subsequent asthma diagnosis via higher SES and lower USE while identifying as Black or Latinx was associated with a higher likelihood of subsequent asthma diagnosis via lower SES and higher USE. USE was associated with pediatric asthma diagnosis and mediated the relationship between SES and asthma diagnosis as well as race/ethnicity and asthma diagnosis. Findings highlight the need to consider USE as a social determinant of health for pediatric asthma. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

The Role of Language and Literacy Skills in Science Learning from Kindergarten to 5th Grade: Mitigating Gender, Racial/Ethnic, and Socio-Economic Disparities

Despite the acknowledged impact of early science achievement on future success, there is a noticeable gap in research focused on understanding the dynamic longitudinal patterns of children attaining science learning milestones in their early years, as well as few investigations of potential factors that may mitigate gender, racial/ethnic, and socio-economic disparities. This study analyzed nationally representative data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study of Kindergarten Cohort 2011 (ECLS-K: 2011), involving 18,174 children from 1328 schools across the United States, selected through a multistage probability sampling process and spanning kindergarten through 5th grade. Using survival analysis with the dependent variable as the time required to attain a specific milestone, the study revealed that boys, non-Black, non-Hispanic, and high-income children reached the science learning threshold earlier than their counterparts—girls, Black, Hispanic, and low-income children. Furthermore, the study underscored the crucial role of language and literacy skills in mitigating these disparities. The study’s implications stress the importance of targeted interventions to address early science education disparities, emphasizing professional development and integrating language and literacy with science learning. The research also enriches the global discourse on educational standards by introducing innovative methodologies to assess both the frequency and duration of science learning milestones.

Association between Dietary Practices and Growth Trajectories in Preschool Children.

To estimate the association of dietary practices with early life weight among children born in 2001 in the U.S. The Early Childhood Longitudinal Study (ECLS-B) is a population-based cohort followed from 9 months to Kindergarten entry (n~5000). We employed an auto-regressive cross-lagged model to assess the impacts of dietary practices on weight stability over time. We calculated age- and sex-standardized BMI z-scores using WHO growth curves. BMI z-scores had a stable increase over time. Later age of solid food introduction was associated with lower BMI z-score at age 2y [-0.03(-0.05,-0.004)]; having dinners more times per week with family at age 2y was associated with higher BMI z-score at 4y [0.03(0.01,0.05)]. These changes, of <0.05 BMI z-score, are small. Children with higher birthweight were introduced to solid foods at younger ages [-0.39 months(-0.45,-0.32)] and were breast fed longer [0.13 months(0.04,0.22)]. For girls, having dinner at a regular time at ages 2y and 4y was associated with lower BMI at ages 4y and 5y. Dietary practices in early childhood affect weight trajectories. However, these effects are small and are largely overshadowed by prior weight. Children's weight in infancy is associated with subsequent dietary practices but also small effects.

Machine learning for causal inference: An application to ECLS-K data

This paper explores the use of machine learning for causal inference to estimate the average treatment effect of special education services on fifth-grade math scores. Causal inference is the study of the relationship between cause and effect when changes in one variable directly affect another variable. The use of machine learning techniques in causal inference problems has been growing rapidly, offering advantages over traditional methods such as propensity score matching. such as propensity score matching. This paper compares the performance of four machine learning methods: Ordinary Least Squares (OLS), Multi-Layer Perception (MLP), Targeted Maximum Likelihood Estimation (TMLE), and Bayesian Additive Regression Trees (BART) in estimating the average treatment effect of special education services on fifth-grade math scores. This study utilizes the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998-1999 (ECLS-K) dataset. A factor analysis is conducted to identify the key variables that influence math performance, paving the way for examining their causal effects. Our results show that BART outperforms the other methods in accuracy and robustness and that receiving special education services does not have a causal effect on math scores. This paper discusses the implications and limitations of our findings and suggests directions for future study.

Kindergarten Predictors of Third-Grade Reading, Math, and Science Achievement: The Influences of Self-Regulation and Early Language Development

Young children’s self-regulation (executive function; approaches to learning) and early language functions have been shown to independently predict children’s achievement in school, particularly reading and mathematics. Controlling for SES, gender and age at kindergarten entry, hierarchical multiple regression was used to test the hypothesis that children’s executive functions, approaches to learning, and early language functions at the beginning of kindergarten would predict third-grade reading, mathematics, and science achievement. Third-grade is a benchmark year as it usually marks the beginning of standardized testing and plays a pivotal role in determining children’s academic trajectories. Data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Kindergarten Class of 2010-2011 (ECLS-K: 2011) were used to test the hypotheses. The hypothesized models suggest that executive function, approaches to learning, and language functions measured at the beginning of kindergarten are predictive of third-grade academic achievement. While the factors were individually predictive, the regression model was the strongest when it included the factors collectively. Implications for both policy and practice are noted.

Multilingual learners’ exposure to science and language inputs in elementary school: ¿Qué sabemos?

AbstractAs linguistic diversity continues to increase in the United States public school system, schools are expected to meet the needs of their ever‐changing student body. While much attention within education research has understandably focused on multilingual learners’ (MLs) English language acquisition, an emergent body of work points to science as an important subject for attention among elementary MLs. We suggest that understanding what science and language inputs are afforded to MLs in schools can contribute to understanding the needs and opportunities for enhancing MLs’ science learning. This study leveraged nationally representative data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study of 2010–2011 to explore the science and language inputs available to MLs in elementary school. Using descriptive statistics, our analysis of science and language inputs provides evidence on what MLs have, or do not have, access to inside of their schools. Science inputs appear to be relatively evenly distributed across classrooms serving non‐MLs, MLs, and subgroups therein. In comparison, language inputs are differentially distributed across ML subgroups, but they are distributed in ways that may align with student needs. However, while the science inputs do not necessarily vary across subgroups, the language inputs do, and this may affect how students can engage with science inputs. In understanding what science and language inputs MLs are afforded, this study provides a foundation for how to improve formal learning environments for them, especially regarding science learning.

A comparison of random forest-based missing imputation methods for covariates in propensity score analysis.

Propensity score analysis (PSA) is a prominent method to alleviate selection bias in observational studies, but missing data in covariates is prevalent and must be dealt with during propensity score estimation. Through Monte Carlo simulations, this study evaluates the use of imputation methods based on multiple random forests algorithms to handle missing data in covariates: multivariate imputation by chained equations-random forest (Caliber), proximity imputation (PI), and missForest. The results indicated that PI and missForest outperformed other methods with respect to bias of average treatment effect regardless of sample size and missing mechanisms. A demonstration of these five methods with PSA to evaluate the effect of participation in center-based care on children's reading ability is provided using data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 2010-2011. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Curvilinearity in the Reference Composite and Practical Implications for Measurement

AbstractItem difficulty and dimensionality often correlate, implying that unidimensional IRT approximations to multidimensional data (i.e., reference composites) can take a curvilinear form in the multidimensional space. Although this issue has been previously discussed in the context of vertical scaling applications, we illustrate how such a phenomenon can also easily occur within individual tests. Measures of reading proficiency, for example, often use different task types within a single assessment, a feature that may not only lead to multidimensionality, but also an association between item difficulty and dimensionality. Using a latent regression strategy, we demonstrate through simulations and empirical analysis how associations between dimensionality and difficulty yield a nonlinear reference composite where the weights of the underlying dimensions change across the scale continuum according to the difficulties of the items associated with the dimensions. We further show how this form of curvilinearity produces systematic forms of misspecification in traditional unidimensional IRT models (e.g., 2PL) and can be better accommodated by models such as monotone‐polynomial or asymmetric IRT models. Simulations and a real‐data example from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study—Kindergarten are provided for demonstration. Some implications for measurement modeling and for understanding the effects of 2PL misspecification on measurement metrics are discussed.

Assessing the Causal Effect of Special Education Services on Math Achievement: A Causal Inference and Machine Learning Study

This study aims to assess the Average Treatment Effect (ATE) of receiving special education services on revised Item Response Theory (IRT) scaled math achievement test scores. By employing a methodological repertoire comprising linear regression with ordinary least squares (OLS), propensity score matching (PSM), Bayesian Additive Regression Trees (BART), and Multilayer Perceptron (MLP), we examine the impact of these interventions. Leveraging data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Kindergarten 2010-11 cohort (ECLS-K:2011), we systematically analyze the ATE of special education services on students' math achievement. The results show that all models yield negative ATE results, suggesting a deleterious effect of special education services on fifth-grade math scores. Furthermore, we employ Principal Component Analysis (PCA) to corroborate these findings, aligning with outcomes obtained from causal inference and Machine Learning (ML) based methods. This research emphasizes the importance of method diversity in educational research and highlights the need for assessments of intervention effectiveness to help educational practices and policies.

Dynamics of a dynamic interrelationship: Exploring whether bidirectional learning behaviors-achievement relations differ across student-teacher relationship profiles

Children who engage more in classroom instruction tend to also have higher levels of academic achievement relative to their peers who engage less. Although research has clearly established an association between such learning behaviors and academic achievement, the directionality of this relationship, and the possibility of bidirectional relations, remain unclear. It is possible that this lack of clarity stems from the fact that interrelationships between achievement and learning behaviors may differ across student-teacher relationship contexts. We evaluated this possibility using a large nationally representative sample of kindergarten to third grade students (N = 2010) from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study–Kindergarten Cohort of 2011. Using latent profile moderation analyses, we identified three profiles of student-teacher relationships across kindergarten through third grade students: (a) Close (68%), (b) Conflictual (16%), and (c) Uninvolved (16%). Our follow-up models identified bidirectional relations that differed across these profiles, indicating more robust bidirectional learning behavior-achievement interrelationships in the Close profile and more unidirectional achievement to learning behavior relations in the Conflictual and Uninvolved profiles. These findings illustrate how differences in environmental contexts impact the relationship between students' learning behaviors and their achievement. Future studies should consider contextual influences when investigating children's academic growth processes and developing interventions.

Nonresponse Bias Analysis in Longitudinal Studies: A Comparative Review with an Application to the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study

SummaryLongitudinal studies are subject to nonresponse when individuals fail to provide data for entire waves or particular questions of the survey. We compare approaches to nonresponse bias analysis (NRBA) in longitudinal studies and illustrate them on the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 2010–2011 (ECLS‐K:2011). Wave nonresponse with attrition often yields a monotone missingness pattern, and the missingness mechanism can be missing at random (MAR) or missing not at random (MNAR). We discuss weighting, multiple imputation (MI), incomplete data modelling and Bayesian approaches to NRBA for monotone patterns. Weighting adjustments can be effective when the constructed weights are correlated with the survey outcome of interest. MI allows for variables with missing values to be included in the imputation model, yielding potentially less biased and more efficient estimates. We add offsets in the MAR results to provide sensitivity analyses to assess MNAR deviations. We conduct NRBA for descriptive summaries and analytic model estimates in the ECLS‐K:2011 application. The strength of evidence about our NRBA depends on the strength of the relationship between the fully observed variables and the key survey outcomes, so the key to a successful NRBA is to include strong predictors.

Academic performance in moderately and late preterm children in the United States: are they catching up?

ObjectiveTo determine whether preterm birth of 32–36 6/7 weeks gestation affected school performance from kindergarten through fifth grade.Study designWe assessed 14350 term infants and 1195 32–36 6/7 weeks gestation infants followed in the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Kindergarten 2011 cohort for classroom performance in kindergarten-fifth grade. Multivariable regression was performed for comparisons, and data were weighted to be representative of the US population.ResultsChildren born 35–36 6/7 weeks gestation had no significant difference in their academic scores or performance, while 32–34 6/7 weeks’ children had lower academic scores and teacher performance scores when compared to term children. Children born between 32 and 36 6/7 weeks gestation had higher odds of individualized education plan needs and had learning disability diagnoses compared to term children.ConclusionsChildren born between 32 and 34 6/7 weeks gestation have poor school performance compared to term children. Children born between 32 and 36 6/7 weeks gestation are at risk for learning disabilities and likely benefit from continued support and services to improve achievement throughout school.

How do behavior problems change over time in childhood? Evidence from the early childhood longitudinal study

The trajectories and predictors of childhood behavior problems remain unclear, this study aims to examine this research topic using nine waves of data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study. A total of 1,1779 and 1,1785 children (ages 5 to 13 years) and their parents and teachers were recruited to examine the development of internalizing and externalizing problems, respectively. Results showed that internalizing problems had three developmental patterns, such as a low-increased pattern, a low-stable pattern, and a medium-decreased pattern, and externalizing problems had five developmental patterns, including a high-decreased pattern, a medium-decreased pattern, a low-high increased pattern, a low-increased pattern, and a low-stable pattern. The race, gender, family socioeconomic status, and self-control of the children predicted these trajectories. Findings suggest that changes in childhood behavior problems are heterogeneous and that individual differences should be considered when studying changes in behavior problems.

Immigrant selectivity at school entry

AbstractImmigrant educational selectivity—immigrant parents' educational attainment relative to their peers who did not migrate—is associated with better schooling outcomes for children at later stages of the educational pipeline in the United States. Less is known, however, about its influence on early education‐related outcomes. Using Early Childhood Longitudinal Study data from three different cohorts and quantitative analyses, I examine the relationship between immigrant selectivity and school readiness at school entry (proxied through math skills and approaches to learning evaluations). I find that immigrant selectivity is positively associated with school readiness, but it does not generate a widespread immigrant advantage at school entry, contrary to findings related to schooling outcomes later in the schooling pipeline. Notably, among most Asian groups, immigrant selectivity partly accounts for school readiness advantages compared to their White peers with native‐born parentage, whenever they emerge. By contrast, accounting for immigrant selectivity reveals the full extent of the immigrant disadvantage at school entry among most Latino groups. These results suggest that immigrant selectivity is an important factor in shaping racial/ethnic stratification early in the schooling pipeline.

Children's socioemotional skills and fathers' work satisfaction: Mediation of fathers' parenting

AbstractObjectiveIn this study, we examined the bidirectional association between fathers' work satisfaction and children's socioemotional skills from T1 (age 2) to T2 (age 4–5) and the mediating role of fathers' parenting.BackgroundFor many parents, balancing family and work roles can be challenging, particularly for fathers who are now expected to be both “ideal workers” and “involved fathers.” With multiple roles, fathers' experiences at work and in the family may have a mutual influence on each other.MethodThis study used structural equation modeling on secondary data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort, to examine the associations and mediation mechanisms.ResultsResults indicate a positive association between fathers' work satisfaction at T1 and children's socioemotional skills at T2 through fathers' higher self‐efficacy and lower parenting stress. Additionally, there was a positive association between children's socioemotional skills at T1 and fathers' work satisfaction at T2 through fathers' higher responsibility and lower parenting stress.ConclusionFindings provide support for the spillover theory regarding the mutual influence of fathers' work‐related experiences and children's development.ImplicationsTo help parents balance the demands of work and family, effective parenting education programs and supportive or person‐centered workplace policies are both essential.

Number of Siblings and Mental Health Among Adolescents: Evidence From the U.S. and China

A growing number of children are being raised with few or no siblings yet the consequences of this seismic demographic shift in family forms are not well understood. We investigate this question in the U.S. and China because previous studies highlight how contextual features can play an important role shaping how siblings matter. Our Chinese analyses draw on more than 9,400 eighth graders from the China Education Panel Study (CEPS). In the U.S., we analyze over 9,100 American eighth graders from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study—Kindergarten Cohort of 1998 (ECLS-K:98), where our data allow us to consider multiple features of the sibship structure (e.g., size, sex composition, and density). We find that number of siblings is negatively associated with mental health in both China and the U.S., although the details of this pattern (non-linear association, sisters versus brothers, and closely versus widely spaced siblings) vary.

An examination of the use and outcomes of readiness assessments, retention policies, and title 1 funding for kindergarten children in the United States

The current study examined the prevalence and usage of three theoretically informed school-level policies, namely the use of readiness assessments, retention policies, and Title I funds in kindergarten classrooms across the United States. Using the nationally representative Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Kindergarten Class of 2011, we examined whether these school-level policies in kindergarten were related to children's academic learning both generally, and specifically for those who had attended pre-K. Results revealed that the use of kindergarten readiness assessments, kindergarten retention policies, and Title I funds in kindergarten were widespread across the nation. However, application and usage of these school-level policies were varied. Moreover, these school-level policies were generally not associated with children's academic learning broadly or differentially for those who had attended pre-K in the year before kindergarten. This study establishes a national snapshot of the kindergarten landscape in the United States and opens a door for future research to continue to explore how kindergarten specific school-level policies shape children's learning.