Early Boot Research Articles

Efficacy of copper foliar spray in preventing copper deficiency of rainfed wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grown in a calcareous soil

Field experiments were conducted to evaluate the response of rainfed wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) to foliar copper (Cu) application in correcting Cu deficiency in calcareous soils. Two native soil Cu contents were tested in successive growing seasons. The soil “1” contained 0.35 mg kg−1 of Cu (Diethylenetriamine Pentaacetic Acid extraction). It was evaluated during the 2016-17 season. The soil “2” contained 0.61 mg kg−1. It was studied during the 2017-18 season. The rainfall amount was around 289 mm and 429 mm, respectively, for 2016-17 and 2017-18 seasons. For the soil “1”, the Cu treatments were: control, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, and 1%. For the soil “2”, the Cu tested levels were: control, 0.01%, 0.03%, 0.05%, 0.1%, and 0.2%. Cu was applied at the early boot growth stage in the sulfate form. The results showed that the response of grain yield to Cu foliar feeding was not related to the tested native soil Cu content. A significant grain yield increase, due to Cu spray, was revealed during the rainfall season (429 mm) in soil “2”. This increase was around 8% at 0.018% of Cu compared to control. However, Cu foliar application higher than 0.03% induced leaf damage. The Cu content of flag leaf and kernels showed a linear response to Cu supply. Flag leaf Cu content was around 5 mg kg−1 in control and exceeded 30 mg kg−1 at Cu application over than 0.03%.

Barley responses to copper foliar spray concentrations when grown in a calcareous soil

This study was designed to determine the adequate copper (Cu) foliar spray concentration to correct Cu deficiency on barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) when grown in a calcareous soil. Five Cu foliar spray solution levels were tested (0% or control; 0.03%, 0.06%, 0.13%, and 0.33%). Copper was applied in the sulfate form at the early boot stage. The results showed that Cu flag leaf concentration was increased with the highest Cu application (0.33%), while Cu concentration in the grain was increased with a spray of 0.03%. An antagonism between Cu, Zn, and Fe leaf concentration was observed. Grain yield and harvest index showed a linear positive response to Cu foliar spray concentrations. A significant increase of 19.6% on grain yield was recorded with a foliar spray 0.33% of Cu.

Effect of planting date, fungicide timing and cultivar susceptibility on severity of narrow brown leaf spot and yield of rice

Narrow brown leaf spot (NBLS) of rice (Oryza sativa L.) is caused by Cercospora janseana (Racib). O. Const. (Synonyms: Cercospora oryzae Miyake, Passalora janseana Racib. U.). Experimental studies were conducted at Rice Research Station, Louisiana State University, and Agricultural Center, Crowley, to manage NBLS by fungicide application of propiconazole at different growth stages of rice cultivars having different susceptibility levels to NBLS in different planting dates. Results of these studies revealed that April (early) had less NBLS severity as compared to May (late) planting. Very susceptible cultivars, CL131 and Cheniere, had the highest and resistant cultivars, Della and Presidio, had the lowest NBLS severity at both the planting dates. Propiconazole application significantly reduced the NBLS severity in comparison to untreated. Fungicide application at panicle initiation was the most effective time to manage NBLS on the very susceptible and susceptible cultivars at both planting dates. NBLS on moderately susceptible cultivars was best managed by applying fungicide either at panicle initiation or early boot stage in early planting but panicle initiation was the best time to apply fungicide in late planting. Resistant cultivars did not need fungicide in April planting but did need in May planting. Rice yield was determined to be higher in April than May planting. Fungicide application at early boot stage protected the yield by 9.4% in April planting and 34.2% when applied at panicle initiation in May. Susceptible cultivar, Cheniere, exhibited the greatest yield and resistant cultivars had lowest yield in both the planting dates regardless of its susceptibility level to NBLS. Yield of very susceptible to susceptible cultivars was reduced in late planting but no effect was observed on yield of moderately susceptible and resistant cultivars.

Forage Harvest Timing Impact on Biomass Quality from Native Warm‐Season Grass Mixtures

Core Ideas Use mixed species native warm‐season grasses for forage/biomass production. Provide nutritional and quality data on switchgrass and mixed species stands for forage and ethanol production. It is possible to alter forage nutritive values/biomass quality with the addition of other grasses with switchgrass. Biomass production systems using native warm‐season grasses can allow for an early‐season harvest (for forage) followed by a dormant harvest (for biomass). A study was conducted to investigate the impact of harvest timing and grass species on the chemical composition of harvested forage and biomass. The three‐species composite treatments were switchgrass (SG) (Panicum virgatum L.); a two‐way blend of big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii V.) (BB) and indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans L.) (IG); and a three‐way mixture of SG, BB, and IG. Harvest treatments were a biomass harvest (BH) in late fall, early‐boot (EB) harvest (for forage) followed by BH, or early‐seedhead harvest (ESH) (for forage) followed by BH. Forage harvested at EB had greater crude protein and less neutral detergent fiber (NDF) and acid detergent fiber (ADF) compared with ESH (P = 0.05). The ADF and NDF content of biomass was greatest for BH and was reduced in biomass regrowth after EB, with the later ESH resulting in the largest decrease in fiber content. Total macronutrient removal of N, P, and K was increased in the dual‐use system. Results indicated that it is possible to alter the composition of biomass provided for bioenergy production by taking an early‐season forage harvest.

Evidence for improved pollen viability as the mechanism for film antitranspirant mitigation of drought damage to wheat yield

Application of film antitranspirant to wheat during late stem extension reduces drought damage to yield, but the mechanism is unknown. Field experiments under rain shelters were conducted over 3 years to test the hypothesis that film antitranspirant applied before meiosis alleviates drought-induced losses of pollen viability, grain number and yield. The film antitranspirant di-1-p-menthene was applied at third-node stage, and meiosis occurred at the early boot stage, with a range of 11–16 days after spray application in different years. Irrigated, unsprayed plots were included under the rain-shelters, and pollen viability, measured in 2 years in these plots, averaged 95.3%. Drought reduced pollen viability to 80.1% in unirrigated, unsprayed plots, but only to 88.6% in unirrigated plots treated with film antitranspirant. Grain number and yield of irrigated plots, measured in all years, were 16 529 m–2 and 9.55 t ha–1, respectively, on average. These were reduced by drought to 11 410 m–2 and 6.31 t ha–1 in unirrigated, unsprayed plots, but only to 12 878 m–2 and 6.97 t ha–1 in unirrigated plots treated with film antitranspirant. Thus compared with unirrigated, unsprayed plots, antitranspirant gave a grain yield benefit of 0.66 t ha–1. Further work is needed to validate the pollen viability mechanism in different climatic zones and with a wide range of cultivars.

Breakeven price of biomass from switchgrass, big bluestem, and Indiangrass in a dual-purpose production system in Tennessee

The objective was to determine the breakeven price for switchgrass (SG) (Panicum virgatum L.), a mix of big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii Vitman) and Indiangrass (BBIG) (Sorghastrum nutans L. Nash), and a combination of SG and BBIG (SG/BBIG) produced under three harvest treatments. Two-harvest treatments included a forage harvest at early boot (EB) and at early seedhead (ESH) plus a biomass harvest at fall dormancy (FD). The third harvest treatment was a single biomass harvest at FD. Mixed models were used to determine if there were differences in yield, crude protein, and nutrient removal for each of the native warm-season grass (NWSG) treatments at each harvest. The EB plus FD harvest system would be preferred over the ESH plus FD harvest system for all NWSG treatments. BBIG was the only NWSG treatment with a breakeven price for biomass that decreased with an EB harvest. For all three NWSG treatments, a producer would be better off harvesting once a year for biomass than twice for forage and biomass. The cost of harvesting and replacing the nutrients for the forage harvest was greater than the revenue received from selling the forage.

Maturity and Regrowth Influences on Quality of Caucasian Bluestem Hay

ABSTRACTCaucasian bluestem [CBS; Bothriochloa caucasica (Trin.) C.E. Hubbard ‘Caucasian’] appears adapted to the mid‐Atlantic region. Three experiments, one with sheep and two with steers, were conducted to assess hay quality. In Experiment (Exp.) 1, initial growth was cut at early boot, anthesis, and postanthesis and regrowth cut at early boot and anthesis (five treatments) and evaluated by wether sheep. All treatments, except regrowth anthesis were also evaluated in a preliminary experiment with steers. In Exp. 2, regrowth was cut at the same three initial growth stages as in Exp. 1 and evaluated by steers. Sheep readily ate CBS hay, consuming 1.88 kg 100 kg−1 body weight (BW) when the hay was cut at early boot, with apparent dry matter digestion (DMD) of 647 g kg−1. Intake decreased linearly by postanthesis to 1.45 kg 100 kg−1 BW with DMD of 548 g kg−1. Steers also readily ate early‐boot CBS hay, averaging 2.49 kg 100 kg−1 BW with DMD of 661 g kg−1. Intake decreased linearly by postanthesis to 1.48 kg 100 kg−1 BW with a DMD of 589 g kg−1. Sheep and steer intake was well correlated (r = 0.951; P = 0.05) as was DMD (r = 0.939; P = 0.06). In Exp. 2, steers readily consumed regrowth hay, averaging 2.73 kg 100 kg−1 BW for the early‐boot cut with a DMD of 670 g kg−1. Intake declined linearly by postanthesis to 1.57 kg 100 kg−1 BW with a DMD of 517 g kg−1. Hays of CBS can provide desirable quality for animal production systems if it is cut by the early‐boot stage in the mid‐Atlantic region of the United States.

Influence of growth stage at harvest on fermentative characteristics of <i>Panicum maximum</i> silage

An experiment was conducted to investigate the influence of stage of growth at harvest on fermentative characteristics of Panicum maximum silage. The treatments were three different growth stages (early vegetative, boot and full bloom stage) that were ensiled directly or wilted prior to ensiling. Directly ensiled and wilted forage material were mixed prior to ensiling with molasses at 12 and 8 kg/ton dry matter, respectively. Thereafter, each treatment was ensiled in 12 one litre glass jars (bottles). From each treatment, samples of the silage were taken from three bottles at 0, 7, 21 and 120 d post-ensiling for analysis of fermentative characteristics. Growth stage in directly cut silage had no effect on silage pH between days 0 and 21. In contrast, within the wilted groups, a lower pH was observed at day 7 when the plants were harvested at the boot stage than at an early vegetative or full bloom stage. In both directly cut as well as prior wilted silage, a higher lactic acid concentration was recorded on day 7 in the boot stage silage compared to the full bloom stage silage, but on day 21 the boot stage had a lower lactic acid concentration than that of the full bloom stage silage. Growth stage had no effect on the acetic acid concentration on day 7. However, on days 21 and 120 the full bloom stage had a higher acetic acid concentration when the material was directly ensiled. In contrast, in prior wilted silage a higher acetic acid concentration was found in the early vegetative stage silage than in the full bloom stage silage at 120 days post-ensiling. Total nitrogen was lower in the full bloom stage silage than in the early vegetative and boot stage silages. A higher level of ammonia nitrogen was recorded at days 7 and 21 for the early vegetative stage silage as compared to the boot stage silage. A similar trend was revealed in the prior wilted groups between days 0 and 21. Harvesting at the boot growth stage consistently resulted in a good fermentation process with desirable fermentation end products (low pH and higher lactic acid concentration) up to a period of 21 days, but when compared at 120 days post-ensiling the differences between boot and bloom stages were not clearly observed in terms of fermentative attributes, probably due to the confounding effect of undesirable fermentation by entrobacteria or yeast.

Evidence for stable transformation of wheat by floral dip in Agrobacterium tumefaciens

Hexaploid wheat, one of the world’s most important staple crops, remains a challenge for genetic transformation. We are developing a floral transformation protocol for wheat that does not require tissue culture. This paper presents three transformants in the hard red germplasm line Crocus that have been characterized thoroughly at the molecular level over three to six generations. Wheat spikes at the early boot stage, i.e. the early, mid or late uninucleate microspore stages, were immersed in an infiltration medium of strain C58C1 harboring pDs(Hyg)35S, or strain AGL1 harboring pBECKSred. pDs(Hyg)35S contains the NPTII and hph selectable markers, and transformants were detected using paromomycin spray at the whole plant level, NPTII ELISAs, or selection on medium with hygromycin. Strain AGL1, harboring pBECKSred, which contains the maize anthocyanin regulators, Lc and C1, and the NPTII gene, was also used to produce a Crocus transformant. T1 and T2 seeds with red embryos were selected; T1 and T2 plants were screened by sequential tests for paromomycin resistance and NPTII ELISAs. The transformants were low copy number and showed Mendelian segregation in the T2. Stable transmission of the transgenes over several generations has been demonstrated using Southern analysis. Gene expression in advanced progeny was shown using Reverse Transcriptase-PCR and ELISA assays for NPTII protein expression. This protocol has the potential to reduce the time and expense required for wheat transformation.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s00299-009-0696-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Foliar application of NPK + polihexose in the culture of wheat

This study aimed to evaluate the response of wheat to the application of NPK + POLIHEXOSE leaves. The experiment was conducted in the municipality of Maripa - PR, between the months of April and August 2008. The experimental design was randomized blocks with five replications. Treatments consisted of application of four doses (0, 2.5, 5.0 and 10.0 L ha-1) a foliar fertilizer containing 15% nitrogen (N), 10% Phosphorus (P) 15 % potassium (K) and the presence of POLIHEXOSE. The foliar applications were divided into two phases, the first at the beginning of the tillering stage and the second in the early boot stage. And is performed with a backpack sprayer pressurized with CO2, and with a volume of 165 L ha-1 . The results obtained showed that the parameters plant height, stem diameter, peduncle length, spike length, insertion of the flag leaf, weight (PH), number of grains per spike, number of spikelets per spike and grain number per spikelet were not influenced significantly by foliar application of increasing doses of NPK + POLIHEXOSE. The foliar application of NPK + POLIHEXOSE provided linear increments about mass of spike, 1000 grain weight, grain weight per spike and yield of wheat.

Foliar application of NPK + polihexose in the culture of wheat

This study aimed to evaluate the response of wheat to the application of NPK + POLIHEXOSE leaves. The experiment was conducted in the municipality of Maripa - PR, between the months of April and August 2008. The experimental design was randomized blocks with five replications. Treatments consisted of application of four doses (0, 2.5, 5.0 and 10.0 L ha-1) a foliar fertilizer containing 15% nitrogen (N), 10% Phosphorus (P) 15 % potassium (K) and the presence of POLIHEXOSE. The foliar applications were divided into two phases, the first at the beginning of the tillering stage and the second in the early boot stage. And is performed with a backpack sprayer pressurized with CO2, and with a volume of 165 L ha-1 . The results obtained showed that the parameters plant height, stem diameter, peduncle length, spike length, insertion of the flag leaf, weight (PH), number of grains per spike, number of spikelets per spike and grain number per spikelet were not influenced significantly by foliar application of increasing doses of NPK + POLIHEXOSE. The foliar application of NPK + POLIHEXOSE provided linear increments about mass of spike, 1000 grain weight, grain weight per spike and yield of wheat.

Fermentative characteristics of Digitaria eriantha subsp. eriantha silage harvested at different stages of maturity

An experiment was conducted to investigate the influence of stage of growth at harvest on fermentative characteristics of Digitaria eriantha subsp. eriantha silage. The treatment included three different growth stages (early vegetative, boot stage and full-bloom stage). The materials were ensiled either directly (unwilted) or after wilting for a period of 5–6 h prior to the ensiling. Samples of silage were taken from three bottles at 0, 7, 21 and 120 d for analysis of fermentative characteristics. Within the directly cut silage, stage of harvesting had no effect on pH on day 7, but on days 21 and 120 there were differences. Lower pH was recorded consistently for the boot stage silage. Within the prior-wilted groups, lower pH was recorded on day 7 for the boot growth stage while the difference between the growth stages in terms of pH was not significant on day 21. Within the directly cut silage, lactic acid concentration was consistently higher for the boot stage as compared to the early or full-bloom stage. Similarly, within the prior-wilted group, silages harvested at the boot growth stage resulted in higher lactic acid concentration on days 7 and 21, but on day 120 lactic acid concentration was higher for the early vegetative stage. In directly cut silages, harvesting at the boot growth stage resulted in a higher acetic acid concentration than that of the early vegetative growth stage or the full-bloom growth stage. For wilted silage, however, lower acetic acid concentration was recorded for the boot stage silage. In directly cut silage, the total nitrogen (N) concentration of boot-stage silage on day 120 was higher compared to the rest, but within the wilted silage the N value for boot-stage silage was not significantly different compared to the early vegetative stage. At day 120 the ammonianitrogen concentration increased for the early vegetative growth stage and full-bloom growth stage, while it was either reduced or remained similar for the boot-stage harvest when compared to the control. Under the current set of experiments, harvesting at the boot growth stage seems beneficial as the silage is lower in pH, higher in lactic acid concentration and able to retain most of the nitrogen in the silage for later use by the target animal.

Pixel Cowboys and Silicon Gold Mines: Videogames of the American West

This article explores representations of the American West in computer and videogames from the late 1970s through 2006. The article reveals how several titles, including the early Boot Hill (1977), invoked classic nineteenth-century western motifs, employing the six-shooter, wagon train, and iron horse to sell late twentieth-century entertainment technology to a global audience. Such games allowed players, typically adolescent males, to recreate a version of history and to participate actively in the more violent aspects of the “Wild West.” The arcade Western emerged as a subgenre within computer entertainment, offering a distinctive, interactive amalgam of popular frontier-based fictions, including the nineteenth-century dime novel, Buffalo Bill Cody’s Wild West show, and the modern Hollywood western. Computer technology thus served established myths surrounding the “Wild West,” even as New Western History was challenging their authenticity.

Effect of nitrogen application timing on dry matter and nitrogen assimilation and partitioning in six wheat cultivars under rain-fed conditions of Jordan

The current study was implemented to assess the effect of nitrogen (N) timing application and cultivars and their interaction on grain yield, and the amount of pre-anthesis dry matter (DM) and N accumulation as well as the remobilization of the assimilates to sink (i.e. grain) under rain-fed conditions of West Asia and North Africa (WANA) region. The treatments comprised of six wheat cultivars and two methods of N application timing (single and split N application). Nitrogen was applied at a rate of 40 kg N ha−1 (the recommended rate in Jordan) as diamonumphosphate (DAP) just before planting (i.e. single N application) or 20 kg ha−1 before planting as DAP plus 20 kg ha−1 top dressed at early boot stage as urea (i.e. split N application). The results suggest that single N application was relatively better than split N application in improving DM accumulation in vegetative parts at anthesis and maturity stages, grain and biological yield and N translocation efficiency (NTE). Cultivar NTE ranged from 73–80%, and the contribution of pre-anthesis assimilates to grain from 26–63%, indicating the importance of pre-anthesis accumulated assimilates for attaining high yield under semi-arid rain-fed-conditions of WANA region.

Initiation of Rice Sheath Blight Epidemics and Effect of Application Timing of Azoxystrobin on Disease Incidence, Severity, Yield, and Milling Quality

The lack of sheath blight-resistant cultivars requires rice (Oryza sativa) farmers to use fungicides to control the disease and avoid significant reductions in grain and milling yield. Sheath blight (Rhizoctonia solani) epidemics can begin over a period of weeks during the growing season, and initiation date can have significant effects on crop damage and fungicide application timing. Studies were conducted to determine how different epidemic initiation and azoxystrobin application timings affect disease development, rice yield, and milling quality. Sheath blight epidemics in field plots were initiated by inoculation at the green ring (GR), panicle differentiation (PD), early boot (EB), and late boot (LB) growth stages in 2002 to 2004. Azoxystrobin was applied to the foliage at 0.17 kg a.i. ha-1 at 7 days after PD (PD+7), midboot (B), and 50% heading (H). Inoculation significantly increased sheath blight severity and incidence and reduced yield and milling quality. There were no significant effects of inoculation timing at the GR, PD, EB, and LB growth stages. Fungicide applications made between PD+7 and H reduced sheath blight severity and incidence, resulting in higher yield and head rice milling yield compared with inoculated but nonsprayed plots.

A review of copper fertilizer management for optimum yield and quality of crops in the Canadian Prairie provinces

Deficiency of copper (Cu) in Canadian prairie soils is not widespread, but whenever it occurs it can cause a drastic reduction in seed yield and quality of most cereals, especially wheat. Field experiments conducted in western Canada indicated that broadcast-incorporation of granular Cu fertilizers prior to seeding at 3-5.6 kg Cu ha-1 was usually sufficient to prevent Cu deficiency in wheat, and improve seed yield and quality. At lower rates (< 2.0 kg Cu ha-1), broadcast-incorporation of granular Cu fertilizers was not effective, while surface spray-broadcast followed by incorporation of liquid Cu fertilizers was much more effective in increasing seed yield of wheat in the first year of application. Surface broadcast without incorporation and seedrow-placed granular Cu fertilizers were much less effective in improving seed yield of wheat than their foliar or soil-incorporated applications. In the growing season, foliar applications of Cu at 0.20 to 0.28 kg Cu ha-1 to wheat at the Feekes 6 (first node of stem visible at base of shoot or stem elongation), Feekes 10 (sheath of last leaf completely grown or flag-leaf) and early boot growth stages were very effective in restoring seed yield, while Cu applications at the Feekes 2 (four-leaf) or Feekes 10.5 (complete heading) growth stage did not have a consistent effect to correct damage caused by Cu deficiency. Some Cu fertilizers (e.g., Cu oxide) were less effective than others in preventing/correcting Cu deficiency. Soil application at relatively high rates produced residual benefits in increasing seed yield for a number of years. The sensitivity of crops to Cu deficiency is usually in the order (wheat, flax, canary seed) > (barley, alfalfa) > (timothy seed, oats, corn) > (peas, clovers) > (canola, rye, forage grasses). Stem melanosis in wheat was associated with deficiency of Cu in soil, and the disease was reduced substantially with Cu application. A high level of available P in soil was observed to induce/increase severity of Cu deficiency in wheat. Soil analysis for diethylene triamine pentacetic acid- (DTPA) extractable Cu in soil can be used as a good diagnostic tool to predict Cu deficiency, but there was a poor relationship between total Cu concentration in shoots and the degree of Cu deficiency in crops. Application of Cu fertilizers to wheat on Cu-deficient soils also generally improved seed quality. Key words: Application time, Cu source, foliar application, granular Cu, growth stage, placement method, rate of Cu, seedrow-placed Cu, soil incorporation, wheat

Partitioning CO2 Respiration among Soil, Rhizosphere Microorganisms, and Roots of Wheat under Greenhouse Conditions

The measurement of soil, root, and rhizomicrobial respiration has become very important in evaluating the role of soil on atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration. The objective of this study was to partition root, rhizosphere, and nonrhizosphere soil respiration during wheat growth. A secondary objective was to compare three techniques for measuring root respiration: without removing shoot of wheat, shading shoot of wheat, and removing shoot of wheat. Soil, root, and rhizomicrobial respiration were determined during wheat growth under greenhouse conditions in a Carwile loam soil (fine, mixed, superactive, thermic Typic Argiaquolls). Total below ground respiration from planted pots increased after planting through early boot stage and then decreased through physiological maturity. Root‐rhizomicrobial respiration was determined by taking the difference in CO2 flux between planted and unplanted pots. Also, root and rhizomicrobial respirations were directly measured from roots by placing them inside a Mason jar. It was determined that root‐rhizomicrobial respiration accounted for 60% of total CO2 flux, whereas 40% was from heterotrophic respiration in unplanted pots. Rhizomicrobial respiration accounted for 18 to 25% of total CO2 flux. Shade and no‐shoot had similar effects on root respiration. The three techniques were not significantly different (p>0.05).

A study of criminal justice policymakers' perspectives: The forgotten component in boot camp programs and goals

Does occupation (sheriff, prosecutor, prison administrator, or parole/probation official) influence selection of boot camp components; especially the traditional positions of “punishers,” usually sheriffs and prosecuting attorneys, and “reformers,” usually prison and probation? As part of a larger study and at the request of the Missouri Department of Corrections, 670 questionnaires were mailed to all Missouri sheriffs, prosecutors, selected prison administrators, probation/parole staff, all public defenders, selected legislatures, and judges in Missouri. Respondents were asked to rank potential boot camp goals and programs using a Likert-type preferences scale of 1 = low preference to 5 = high preference. Three hundred fifty-three were returned, for a return rate of 53 percent. Using the Missouri survey data, the research question for this article was: Did occupation influence selection of boot camp components? To test the association of occupation with selection, a shorter list was compiled from the Missouri survey data of six typical “punishment” items and six typical “reform” items as selected from the literature. Means and a t-test of significance were calculated. Results showed traditional positions of “punishment” and “reform” did not drive program choices. Preference for “reform” items by all occupations was higher than preference for “punishment” items. Results showed a potential shift away from the early military - punishment style of early boot camps. Correctional agencies thinking of reconfiguring or building new boot camps could use the results as a guide.

First Report of Tan Spot of Wheat Caused by Pyrenophora tritici-repentis in the Pacific Northwest.

In late May 2001, lesions resembling tan spot were observed on lower leaves of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in early boot stage in Nez Perce County, ID. Abundant sporulation was observed from tan lesions with chlorotic haloes after 2 days incubation in a moist chamber at room temperature. Conidia were multicelled, straw colored, approximately 100 × 15 µm, rounded at the apex, and borne singly on dark brown conidiophores. The fungus fit the morphological description of Drechslera tritici-repentis (Died.) Shoemaker, the anamorphic state of Pyrenophora tritici-repentis (Died.) Drechs. (2). Three single-conidial isolates were sampled from infected plants in a 5 × 1 m area of the affected field and induced to sporulate. Two of the isolates were used to spray-inoculate 3-week-old susceptible wheat (cv. Madsen) in the greenhouse (one plant per isolate, 1 × 105 conidia/ml), and tan spot lesions were apparent 3 to 5 days after inoculation with both isolates. DNA was extracted from all three isolates, and the entire nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) was amplified with ITS1 and ITS4 primers (4). Similarly, 610 bp of the 5' end of the glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate-dehydrogenase gene (gpd) was amplified with gpd-1 and gpd-2 primers (1). ITS and gpd amplicons were direct-sequenced on both strands, and alignment revealed that all three isolates were identical for both regions. A BLAST search of the NCBI database with the ITS sequence revealed P. tritici-repentis accessions AY004808 and AF071348 and D. tritici-repentis accession AF163060 as the closest matches with 100, 99.8, and 98.8% sequence similarity, respectively. A similar search with the gpd sequence revealed P. tritici-repentis accessions AY004838 and AF081370 and P. bromi accession AY004839 as the closest matches with 100, 100, and 99.0% sequence similarity, respectively. These results, coupled with the morphological identification and inoculation results, confirm the identity of the fungus as P. tritici-repentis. Although reported on other grass hosts in the region (3), to our knowledge, this is the first report of tan spot of wheat in the Pacific Northwest. This disease has been of little concern to wheat producers in the Pacific Northwest due to low rainfall and relative humidity during the growing season.

Nitrogen Application and Critical Shoot Nitrogen Concentration for Optimum Grain and Seed Protein Yield of Pearl Millet

ABSTRACTPearl millet [Pennisetum glaucum (R) Br.] is a promising alternative grain crop for the Southeast and mid‐South regions of the USA, but additional N fertility information is needed to optimize its production. Identification of a critical tissue N level at early growth stages is necessary to determine the need for subsequent applications of N. Field experiments were conducted to determine the response of hybrid ‘HGM 100’ grain yield, protein yield, and shoot N concentration to N application rate and to determine the relationship of grain yield and protein yield with shoot N concentration at different growth stages. Grain yield response to N fertilizer applications from 0 to 168 kg ha−1, in 34‐kg increments, varied among five field environments ranging from sandy loam to silty clay loam soils and resulted in a moderately low correlation (r2 = 0.36). Relative total protein yield was more consistent (r2 = 0.67). Tissue N concentration of shoots harvested 44 ± 4 d after seeding [early boot(EB)] was related to relative grain yield (r2 = 0.65). A critical N concentration of 31 g kg−1 dry matter (dm), determined by regression and “old” Cate–Nelson procedures, resulted in optimum grain yield. On a per hectare basis, total relative protein yield also correlated moderately high with shoot tissue N concentration at EB (r2 = 0.70). The use of Cate–Nelson procedures determined a critical N concentration in shoot tissue at EB of 32 g kg−1 dm. Determination of a critical N level at an earlier growth stage resulted in low correlations with yield parameters. On the basis of critical values at the EB stage, N amendments could possibly be applied in time to enhance some yield components, although the effective application window is narrow.