Depression In Early Adulthood Research Articles

Balancing constraints and requirements in an application process

ObjectiveAdolescence is a vulnerable period for onset of depression. Socioeconomic deprivation may elevate the risk of depression. We explored the risk of depression in early adulthood in relation to deprivation during adolescence. Approach97,561 individuals aged 10-14 years were grouped at baseline (2010) using small-area indicator of area-level deprivation (measured in quintiles) and linked with yearly antidepressant prescriptions (2010–2021). A logistic random-intercept multilevel model estimated the longitudinal trajectory of yearly antidepressant prescriptions (2010-2021) between deprivation quintiles in 2010, adjusting for sex and age at baseline. ResultsIn 2010, the marginal probability of receiving antidepressants for an average young person differed little between those living in the most (0.0028: 95%CI=0.0025,0.0032) and least (0.0027: 0.0023,0.0032) deprived areas (p=0.75). By 2021, the marginal probability had increased more for those who lived in the most deprived areas in 2010 (0.191: 0.187,0.195) compared to those who lived in the least deprived areas in 2010 (0.140: 0.135,0.145)(p<0.001). Estimated antidepressant prescriptions were higher in females compared to males (Odds Ratio[OR]=3.15: 3.00,3.29) and increased per year of age at baseline (OR=1.26: 1.24,1.28). ConclusionsGrowing up in more socially deprived areas is associated with an increase in antidepressant prescription risk during early adulthood. Improvements in administrative data access and linkage are needed to further explore these findings. ImplicationsPolicy makers and data custodians should recognise the potential for administrative data in identifying social disadvantage and associated vulnerabilities in the general population, and take steps to make this data accessible to the research community.

Physical Activity During Adolescence and Mental Health in Early Adulthood: Findings From the 1993 Pelotas Birth Cohort Study.

Low prevalence of physical activity (PA) and a high prevalence of mental health problems are common among youth. The aim of this study was to evaluate the association between PA during adolescence and depression and anxiety disorders in young adulthood. Data from the 1993 Pelotas (Brazil) Birth Cohort Study were analyzed. Leisure-time PA and total PA (leisure plus commuting) were evaluated at 11, 15, and 18years using self-reported data. PA was evaluated at each age separately and during adolescence, considering the number of times participants reached PA recommendations. Depression and anxiety were assessed through Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview at 22years. Crude and adjusted association analyses were performed using Poisson regression with robust error variance, providing prevalence ratios and 95% confidence intervals. Three thousand two hundred and forty-seven participants were included in the study. In the adjusted analyses, active participants in leisure-time PA (≥300min/wk) and total PA at 11years were less likely to be depressed at age 22 (prevalence ratios: 0.54; 95% confidence interval, 0.33-0.89; prevalence ratios: 0.63; 95% confidence interval, 0.41-0.97). For leisure-time PA, the more PA recommendations were met during adolescence, the lower the prevalence of depression. There was no association when PA variables were evaluated separately at 15 and 18years and between PA and anxiety after controlling for potential confounders. Early adolescence appears to be a sensitive period for PA benefits on depression in early adulthood. The more timepoints reaching PA recommendations during adolescence, the lower the risk of depression. On the other hand, PA during adolescence was not associated with anxiety in young adults.

Lasting scars: The impact of depression in early adulthood on subsequent labor market outcomes.

A growing body of evidence indicates that poor health early in life can leave lasting scars on adult health and economic outcomes. While much of this literature focuses on childhood experiences, mechanisms generating these lasting effects-recurrence of illness and interruption of human capital accumulation-are not limited to childhood. In this study, we examine how an episode of depression experienced in early adulthood affects subsequent labor market outcomes. We find that, at age 50, people who had met diagnostic criteria for depression when surveyed at ages 27-35 earn 10% lower hourly wages (conditional on occupation), work 120-180 fewer hours annually, and earn 24% lower annual wage incomes. A portion of this income penalty (21%-39%) occurs because depression is often a chronic condition, recurring later in life. But a substantial share (25%-55%) occurs because depression in early adulthood disrupts human capital accumulation, by reducing work experience and by influencing selection into occupations with skill distributions that offer lower potential for wage growth. These lingering effects of early depression reinforce the importance of early and multifaceted intervention to address depression and its follow-on effects in the workplace.

The Double-Mediating Effect of Interpersonal Competence and Social Support on the Relationship between ADHD Traits and Depression in Early Adulthood

Background: This study aims to analyze the relationship between interpersonal competence, social support, ADHD traits, and depression in early adulthood, and by using the double-mediation model, to examine the effect of the first two variables on the last two.Methods: The participants comprised 146 male and 155 female adults aged between 19 and 34, from whom data was collected through the Korean version of the WHO Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale, interpersonal competence and depression subscales of the mental health test developed by Suh et al., and social support scale developed by Iverson et al.Results: The results showed that adult ADHD traits were negatively correlated with interpersonal competence and social support, and positively correlated with depression. In addition, interpersonal competence was positively correlated with social support and negatively correlated with depression, whereas social support was negatively correlated with depression. Finally, interpersonal competence and social support sequentially mediated adult ADHD traits and depression.Conclusions: This sequential double-mediating effect is of great academic significance and suggests that improving interpersonal competence and social support may be effective in mitigating the negative effect of ADHD traits on depression in early adulthood.

The associations between body dissatisfaction, exercise intensity, sleep quality, and depression in university students in southern China.

In recent years, depression in early adulthood has become an urgent global public health concern. The university years mark a transitional period from adolescence to adulthood. Young people are required to face academic and life pressures independently, which increases the risk of mental health problems in university. The main goal of the current study was to explore the sex differences in depression, body dissatisfaction, sleep quality, and exercise intensity among university students in southern China and to analyze the factors affecting the level of depression among university students. In total, 1,258 university students aged 18-23 years were recruited for this study. All participants completed anthropometric measurements, the Self-rating Depression Scale, Physical Activity Rating Scale, and Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index. Body dissatisfaction levels were measured using sex-appropriate silhouettes. Compared with young women, young men had higher exercise intensity and sleep quality, whereas young women's body dissatisfaction and depression levels were significantly higher than those of young men. Sleep quality score (β = 0.34, p < 0.01), sex (β = 0.15, p < 0.01), physical activity score (β = -0.14, p < 0.01), and body dissatisfaction (β = 0.14, p < 0.01) were significant predictive factors of the Self-rating Depression Scale score. Low levels of physical dissatisfaction have a positive effect on depression, and high levels of physical activity and quality sleep can also improve depressive symptoms. At the same time, increasing body satisfaction has the effect of increasing physical activity and improving sleep quality. Therefore, there is great potential to prevent and ameliorate depression by reducing body dissatisfaction.

Hope Buffers the Effect of Fear of COVID-19 on Depression among College Students: Insomnia as a Mediator.

In the period of the global pandemic, psychophysical problems induced by the fear of COVID-19 among college students deserve attention since the dormitory environment in college greatly increases the possibility of COVID-19 infection. A hypothesized mediated moderation model was to be verified using a cross-sectional study among 2453 college students. Fear of COVID-19, insomnia, hope, and depression were assessed by using the relevant scales. (1) The fear of COVID-19 was positively correlated to depression (β = 0.365, t = 5.553, 95% CI = [0.236, 0.494]); (2) hope moderated the influence of the fear of COVID-19 on depression (β = -0.093, t = -4.066, 95% CI = [-0.137, -0.048]), as well as on insomnia (β = -0.095, t = -4.841, 95% CI = [-0.133, -0.056]); and (3) the mediated moderation model with hope as the moderator and insomnia as the full mediating variable between fear of COVID-19 and depression was verified (β = -0.060, 95% CI = [-0.093, -0.028]). The findings suggest that hope is a vital mechanism to explain the relationship between the fear of COVID-19 and depression in early adulthood. In practical application, mental health practitioners should focus on boosting hope and alleviating insomnia when addressing COVID-19-related depression issues among college students.

Lasting Scars: The Impact of Depression in Early Adulthood on Subsequent Labor Market Outcomes

Lasting Scars: The Impact of Depression in Early Adulthood on Subsequent Labor Market Outcomes

Networks of Adversity in Childhood and Adolescence and Their Relationship to Adult Mental Health

Adverse experiences before the age of eighteen are common and include diverse events ranging from sexual abuse to parental divorce. These stressful experiences have been linked to physical and mental health issues. Previous research has focused mainly on childhood adversity, such as experiences in the family environment. Little consideration has been given to adversities that may be particularly harmful in adolescence. To understand adolescents’ adverse experiences, this project used data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC, total N = 14,901, N ≈ 1,200 − 10,000 per measure). We modelled interrelations of adversities in childhood (1–11 years) and adolescence (11–23 years) and examined adversity clusters using network analysis. We found two similar clusters in the childhood and adolescence networks: (1) direct abuse and (2) adverse family factors. We identified a third cluster of (3) educational and social adversities for adolescence. For both age groups, emotional abuse in the family environment was closely linked to mental health in early adulthood and most adversities were linked with depression in early adulthood. In adolescence, housing and academic issues and abuse by a romantic partner were particularly central to the network of adversities. Thus, we found commonalities and differences in the relevance of adverse experiences at different developmental stages. These findings highlight the need to develop age-dependent frameworks for adversity research and policymaking.

Maternal postnatal depression and offspring depression at age 24 years in a UK-birth cohort: the mediating role of maternal nurturing behaviours concerning feeding, crying and sleeping.

Background: Maternal postnatal depression (PND) is a risk factor for offspring depression in adulthood. However, few longitudinal studies have examined the role of maternal nurturing parenting behaviours in the association between maternal PND and offspring depression in adulthood. Methods: We examined pathways from maternal PND measured using self-reported Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale at 8 weeks to offspring ICD-10 depression diagnosed using the Clinical Interview Schedule-Revised computerised assessment at 24 years through maternal-reported nurturing behaviours concerning feeding, sleeping and crying measured from pregnancy to age 3 years 6 months in 5,881 members of the UK-based birth cohort study, the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. Results: The fully adjusted model revealed an indirect effect from PND to adult offspring depression through the combination of all parenting factors (probit regression coefficient [ B]=0.038, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.005, 0.071); however, there was no evidence of a direct effect from early maternal PND to offspring depression once the indirect effect via parenting factors was accounted for ( B=0.009, 95%CI -0.075, 0.093). Specificity analyses revealed indirect effects through maternal worries about feeding ( B=0.019, 95%CI 0.003, 0.035, p=0.010) and maternal perceptions and responses to crying ( B=0.018, 95%CI 0.004, 0.032, p=0.012). Conclusions: The adverse impact of maternal PND on offspring depression in early adulthood was explained by maternal nurturing behaviours concerning feeding, crying and sleeping in early childhood. Residual confounding and measurement error likely limit reliable conclusions. If found causal, interventions providing support to reduce worries around maternal nurturing behaviours and treating depression could reduce adverse outcomes in adult offspring of depressed mothers.

Interparental Conflict and Early Adulthood Depression: Maternal Care and Psychological Needs Satisfaction as Mediators.

Previous research has identified exposure to interparental conflict (IPC) in childhood as a risk factor for young adults’ depression. However, there is still a lack of understanding of the underlying mediating mechanisms of this association. Driven by the spillover hypothesis, the present study investigated whether maternal antipathy and neglect, and in turn unmet psychological needs, mediated the relation between IPC and early adulthood depression in a sample of 347 undergraduate students (M = 23.27 years; SD = 0.86; 57.05% women) in China. The participants completed self-report measures of IPC, maternal care, satisfaction of basic psychological needs, and depression. Structural equation modeling revealed that: (a) IPC was positively associated with early adulthood depression; (b) this association was sequentially mediated by inadequate maternal care (i.e., antipathy and neglect) and by unsatisfied psychological needs. These findings suggest that efforts to prevent depression should focus on reducing not only IPC, but also inadequate maternal care and unmet psychological needs.

Maternal postnatal depression and offspring depression at age 24 years in a UK-birth cohort: the mediating role of maternal nurturing behaviours concerning feeding, crying and sleeping

Background: Maternal postnatal depression (PND) is a risk factor for offspring depression in adulthood. However, few longitudinal studies have examined the role of maternal nurturing parenting behaviours in the association between maternal PND and offspring depression in adulthood. Methods: We examined pathways from maternal PND measured using self-reported Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale at 8 weeks to offspring ICD-10 depression diagnosed using the Clinical Interview Schedule-Revised computerised assessment at 24 years through maternal-reported nurturing behaviours concerning feeding, sleeping and crying measured from pregnancy to age 3 years 6 months in 5,881 members of the UK-based birth cohort study, the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. Results: The fully adjusted model revealed an indirect effect from PND to adult offspring depression through the combination of all parenting factors (probit regression coefficient [ B]=0.038, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.005, 0.071); however, there was no evidence of a direct effect from early maternal PND to offspring depression once the indirect effect via parenting factors was accounted for ( B=0.009, 95%CI -0.075, 0.093). Specificity analyses revealed indirect effects through maternal worries about feeding ( B=0.019, 95%CI 0.003, 0.035, p=0.010) and maternal perceptions and responses to crying ( B=0.018, 95%CI 0.004, 0.032, p=0.012). Conclusions: The adverse impact of maternal PND on offspring depression in early adulthood was explained by maternal nurturing behaviours concerning feeding, crying and sleeping in early childhood. Residual confounding and measurement error likely limit reliable conclusions. If found causal, interventions providing support to reduce worries around maternal nurturing behaviours and treating depression could reduce adverse outcomes in adult offspring of depressed mothers.

The Mediating Effect of Experiential Avoidance and Social Support between Rejection Sensitivity and Depression in Early Adulthood

목적 본 연구에서는 성인초기의 거부민감성과 우울의 관계에서 경험회피와 사회적 지지의 매개효과를 검증하고자 하였다. 방법 이를 위해 만18~35세 남녀를 대상으로 거부민감성 척도, 경험회피 척도, 사회적 지지 척도, 우울 척도로 구성된 설문을 2020년 4월 9일부터 4월 16일까지 온라인으로 실시하였다. 221명의 설문 결과 중 응답 연령에 맞지 않는 3부를 제외하고 최종 218명의 자료를 분석에 사용하였다. 결과 분석결과 첫째, 거부민감성이 우울에 영향을 미칠 때 경험회피가 이를 완전 매개하였다. 둘째, 거부민감성이 우울에 영향을 미칠 때 사회적 지지는 이를 부분 매개하였다. 셋째, 거부민감성과 우울의 관계에서 경험회피와 사회적 지지는 병렬다중매개효과가 있는 것으로 나타났다. 이는 거부민감성이 우울에 직접 영향을 줄 뿐 아니라 경험회피와 사회적 지지를 통해서도 영향을 준다는 것을 보여준다. 결론 이러한 연구결과를 바탕으로 우울을 경험하는 성인들의 경우 거부민감성의 영향을 고려하여 내적 변인인 경험회피와 외적 변인인 사회적 지지에 초점을 맞추어 상담적 개입이 필요함을 제안하는 한편 본 연구의 한계와 추후 연구에 대해 제언하였다.

Maternal postnatal depression and offspring depression at age 24 years in a UK-birth cohort: the mediating role of maternal nurturing behaviours concerning feeding, crying and sleeping.

Background: Maternal postnatal depression (PND) is a risk factor for offspring depression in adulthood. However, few longitudinal studies have examined the role of maternal nurturing parenting behaviours in the association between maternal PND and offspring depression in adulthood. Methods: We examined pathways from maternal PND measured using self-reported Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale at 8 weeks to offspring ICD-10 depression diagnosed using the Clinical Interview Schedule-Revised computerised assessment at 24 years through maternal-reported nurturing behaviours concerning feeding, sleeping and crying measured from pregnancy to age 3 years 6 months in 5,881 members of the UK-based birth cohort study, the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. Results: The fully adjusted model revealed an indirect effect from PND to adult offspring depression through the combination of all parenting factors (probit regression coefficient [ B]=0.038, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.005, 0.071); however, there was no evidence of a direct effect from early maternal PND to offspring depression once the indirect effect via parenting factors was accounted for ( B=0.009, 95%CI -0.075, 0.093). Specificity analyses revealed indirect effects through maternal worries about feeding ( B=0.019, 95%CI 0.003, 0.035, p=0.010) and maternal perceptions and responses to crying ( B=0.018, 95%CI 0.004, 0.032, p=0.012). Conclusions: The adverse impact of maternal PND on offspring depression in early adulthood was explained by maternal nurturing behaviours concerning feeding, crying and sleeping in early childhood. Residual confounding and measurement error likely limit reliable conclusions. If found causal, interventions providing support to reduce worries around maternal nurturing behaviours and treating depression could reduce adverse outcomes in adult offspring of depressed mothers.

The interactions between childhood adversities and recent stress were associated with early-adulthood depression among Chinese undergraduate students.

It is widely acknowledged that childhood adversities (CAs) and recent stress are potential risk factors for adult depression. However, the mechanism(s) by which interactions of CAs with recent stress affect adult depression remain unclear. To investigate the predictive association of the interaction among CAs and recent stress with early-adult depression. We conducted an annual survey of all freshmen for the period of 2016-2018 in a Chinese comprehensive university, with a sample size of 23,206. An online questionnaire including standardized self-report instruments was used to assess sociodemographic factors, childhood experiences of left-behind (CELB), and maltreatments (CEMTs) including beating (CEB), neglect (CEN), sexual abuse (CESA), recent stress, and current depression (measured by the 9-item Patient Health Questionnaire). The correlation of Individual CAs and recent stress was significant. In addition to their significant independent/direct incremental effects, all surveyed CAs were associated with increased severity of early-adult depression, and increased frequency of clinically significant depression (CSD), through significant associations with recent stress (mediation effect). History of CEMTs including CEB, CEN, and CESA significantly increased the effects of recent stress on depression (moderation effect). Chinese undergraduate students reported frequent history of exposure to CAs, which increased the likelihood of depression in early adulthood, not only directly but also through the increasing the likelihood (mediation effect) and impact (moderation effect) of recent stress on depression. These novel findings may help to extend our understanding of environmental determinants of depression, and to guide further research, clinical practice, and policy in this context.

The Application of Quality of Life Therapy via Teletherapy during COVID-19 to Reduce Depression in Early Adulthood (When caused by bullying during adolescence)

One of the effects of bullying in adolescence is the emerging of depression tendency in early adulthood even when the bullying has stopped. This long-term impact can require psychological therapy. One of the psychological therapies that helps to reduce depression tendencies is Quality-of-Life-Therapy (QOLT). QOLT could increase happiness and overall quality of life by increasing satisfaction in several areas from 16 specific areas of life through the 5 stages of CASIO. The purpose of this study is to determine the effect of QOLT on the depression tendencies in early adulthood victims of adolescent bullying. The research design used in this study was a single case experimental design with ABA pattern. The instrument used in this study was the 21-items Beck Depression Inventory. There were two subjects in this study, each with a high level of depression tendency based on the BDI score. The QOLT was conducted online for 8 sessions and administered by a psychologist. In addition, the QOLT module guide was used as a reference for implementing the therapy that has been validated by expert. The data were subjected to visual and descriptive analysis and the results show the decrease of depression tendency.&#x0D; Keywords: depression tendency, quality of life therapy, bullying victims, early adulthood, pandemic covid-19

Psychological stresses among Chinese university students during the COVID-19 epidemic: The effect of early life adversity on emotional distress

BackgroundCoronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is leading to numerous psychological outcomes, especially emotional distress. Individuals with early life adversity (ELA) may be more susceptible to those psychological stresses during this epidemic. AimsTo measure the effect of the ELA on acute stress reactions, anxiety and depression during the COVID-19 epidemic, and to examine whether specific trauma types and frequencies of exposure are associated with a more severe acute stress reaction and increased risk of anxiety and depressive symptoms. MethodThis investigation was performed at college students in a comprehensive University of China. The online self-report questionnaire included ELA experiences, exposure to epidemic-related events, acute stress reactions, and anxiety and depression symptoms during the COVID-19 epidemic. Logistic regression and stepwise regression were used to assess the associations and interactions among these variables. ResultsParticipants with ELA reported more exposure to epidemic-related events and more severe stress reactions during the epidemics than did those with no ELA. The experience of ELA is associated with acute stress reactions, anxiety and depression in early adulthood. Furthermore, experiencing more ELA during childhood may not only increase the risk of anxiety and depression episode in early adulthood but also lead to more severe acute stress reactions during the epidemic. ConclusionRegardless of specific ELA types, ELAs have longer time effects on individual's susceptibility to stress. Under this epidemic, the mental health in young adults with ELA needs more attention.

The relationship between parental involvement in childhood and depression in early adulthood

BackgroundPositive early life experiences may help prevent depression later in life. We examined the accumulated benefit, timing, and trajectories of positive parental involvement in childhood in association with incident depression in early adulthood. MethodsProspectively assessed Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) data (n = 7120) were analyzed. Overall and developmental stage-specific parental involvement scores were estimated from multiple measures from birth to age 7 years. Trajectory groups of parental involvement were derived via latent class growth analysis. At 18 years, depression cases were identified with diagnostic instruments. Multiple imputation was used to handle missingness. We constructed logistic regression models with potential confounders adjusted. ResultsParticipants from trajectory groups with higher average parenting scores over time had 30% to 40% lower odds of developing depression in early adulthood than participants from the group with the lowest average parenting score over time. However, the relationship became non-significant when all covariates were adjusted. A one-unit increase in the overall parenting score corresponded to 12% lower odds of developing depression (adjusted OR=0.88 [0.79–0.98]). Protective effects on incident depression in early adulthood from parental involvement in school age (5–7 years), and not at other ages, were observed (OR=0.87 [0.77–0.99] for a one-unit increase in the parenting score at school age). However, the relationship became non-significant when all covariates were adjusted (OR=0.91 [0.80–1.03]). LimitationsMeasurements of parental involvement were only based on maternal report. The study has limited generalizability to other racial/ethnic groups. ConclusionHigher level of parental involvement during childhood lowers the risk of developing depression in early adulthood. These results suggest positive early life experiences may promote mental health across the life course.

The association between adolescent football participation and early adulthood depression.

Concerned about potentially increased risk of neurodegenerative disease, several health professionals and policy makers have proposed limiting or banning youth participation in American-style tackle football. Given the large affected population (over 1 million boys play high school football annually), careful estimation of the long-term health effects of playing football is necessary for developing effective public health policy. Unfortunately, existing attempts to estimate these effects tend not to generalize to current participants because they either studied a much older cohort or, more seriously, failed to account for potential confounding. We leverage data from a nationally representative cohort of American men who were in grades 7–12 in the 1994–95 school year to estimate the effect of playing football in adolescent on depression in early adulthood. We control for several potential confounders related to subjects’ health, behavior, educational experience, family background, and family health history through matching and regression adjustment. We found no evidence of even a small harmful effect of football participation on scores on a version of the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression scale (CES-D) nor did we find evidence of adverse associations with several secondary outcomes including anxiety disorder diagnosis or alcohol dependence in early adulthood. For men who were in grades 7–12 in the 1994–95 school year, participating or intending to participate in school football does not appear to be a major risk factor for early adulthood depression.

HPA-axis multilocus genetic profile score moderates the association between maternal prenatal perceived stress and offspring depression in early adulthood.

Maternal stress during pregnancy can cause alterations to the fetal hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, a phenomenon known as fetal programming that may have lasting effects on offspring outcomes, including depression. Evidence suggests that these effects may vary with respect to the offspring's genetic risk. Nonetheless, few studies have examined these effects into adulthood, when risk for depression onset is highest. The present study builds upon the extant literature by examining the interaction of maternal prenatal perceived stress (MPPS) and offspring HPA-axis polygenic risk to predict offspring depression in early adulthood. A total of 381 mother-child dyads participated in a prospective, longitudinal study that spanned from pregnancy until offspring were 20 years of age. Polygenic risk was defined by a multilocus genetic profile score (MGPS) that reflected the additive risk of three HPA-axis candidate genes. The results indicated that the interaction of MPPS and HPA-axis MGPS confers risk for offspring depression at age 20, in line with the differential susceptibility model. This interaction may be specific to prenatal stress, as maternal stress during early childhood did not interact with genetic risk to predict depression. These findings provide the first evidence that genetic variants that are associated with the HPA axis may act in a polygenic, additive fashion to moderate the association between fetal programming and adult depression.

Childhood Family Environment and Depression in Early Adulthood in Botswana

The childhood family environment is a determinant of mental health outcomes later in life. Yet, few studies have examined its role in outcomes such as depression in early adulthood, especially in low- and middle-income countries such as Botswana. This study explores the relationship between childhood family environmental factors and depression among young adults in Botswana. A sample of 351 students at the University of Botswana was surveyed through a self-administered questionnaire, which included various childhood environmental factors, the Beck Depression Inventory-II and socio-demographic items. Descriptive statistics, t-tests and regression models were used in the data analyses. About one in four young adults reported moderate to severe symptoms of depression with about one in ten in the severe category. Childhood alcohol use, parental drug and alcohol use, physical assault, and psychological aggression towards parents or guardians during childhood, all significantly predicted symptoms of depression in early adulthood. Altogether, the childhood family environmental factors and gender explained significant variance in depressive symptoms. Multiple adverse childhood environments constitute significant risk factors for depression in early adulthood and the next generation. Preventive and early intervention services for vulnerable children, evaluation of mental health, childhood family experiences, and creating awareness of the need for treatment are critical. Cognitive behavioural therapy and mindfulness training are possible strategies to reduce the life-course effects of adverse childhood family environmental factors on depression in young adults.