Dynamic-thermodynamic Sea Ice Model Research Articles

The Earth system model CLIMBER-X v1.0 – Part 1: Climate model description and validation​​​​​​​​​​​​​​

Abstract. The newly developed fast Earth system model CLIMBER-X is presented. The climate component of CLIMBER-X consists of a 2.5-D semi-empirical statistical–dynamical atmosphere model, a 3-D frictional–geostrophic ocean model, a dynamic–thermodynamic sea ice model and a land surface model. All the model components are discretized on a regular lat–long grid with a horizontal resolution of 5∘×5∘. The model has a throughput of ∼ 10 000 simulation years per day on a single node with 16 CPUs on a high-performance computer and is designed to simulate the evolution of the Earth system on temporal scales ranging from decades to >100 000 years. A comprehensive evaluation of the model performance for the present day and the historical period shows that CLIMBER-X is capable of realistically reproducing many observed climate characteristics, with results that generally lie within the range of state-of-the-art general circulation models. The analysis of model performance is complemented by a thorough assessment of climate feedbacks and model sensitivities to changes in external forcings and boundary conditions. Limitations and applicability of the model are critically discussed. CLIMBER-X also includes a detailed representation of the global carbon cycle and is coupled to an ice sheet model, which will be described in separate papers. CLIMBER-X is available as open-source code and is expected to be a useful tool for studying past climate changes and for the investigation of the long-term future evolution of the climate.

Application of an ice-ocean coupled model to Bohai Sea ice simulation

The HAMSOM (Hamburg Shelf Ocean Model), a high-resolution regional ice-ocean coupled model, was applied to investigate the seasonal evolution of Bohai Sea ice for winter 2015/2016. HAMSOM was initialized with monthly climatological temperature and salinity data from WOA13 and driven by hourly meteorological data obtained from the NCEP above the sea surface and tides at the open boundary. The ice model used here is a modified Hibler-type dynamic-thermodynamic sea ice model based upon viscous-plastic rheology. The ice extent, concentration, area, thickness, length of ice season as well as the distance between the top of Liaodong Bay (North China) and the outer ice edge line were simulated and compared with the observed data. Three types of modeling experiments were carried out to investigate the effects of wind, tide, and both wind and tide on Bohai Sea ice. The results show that wind, as both a dynamic and a thermodynamic factor, has a significant impact on the ice thickness, ice area, and ice-freezing and ice breakup dates as well as the ice velocity, while tides are a dynamic factor that influences only the ice velocity. During the severe ice period, the wind speed intensity increased by 25%, the average ice thickness thickened by approximately 4.0 cm in Liaodong Bay, approximately 2.1 cm in Bohai Bay and approximately 2.5 cm in Laizhou Bay, and the total ice coverage area and total ice actual area increased by about 2×104 km2 and 1.4×104 km2, respectively. While the tidal amplitude intensity increased by 25%, the average ice velocity increased by approximately 0.1 m/s.

Pre-industrial multiple equilibrium sea-ice flow states due to plastic ice mechanics

Abstract Because the Arctic Ocean is largely surrounded by land masses, sea ice mechanics significantly affects the outflow of ice from the Arctic Basin. An important legacy of Dr. Max Coon has been the recognition that Arctic ice pack fails and flows in a plastic manner. Building on this concept we demonstrate here that with reasonable simulation of plastic scaling of sea-ice flow through narrow channels, dynamic–thermodynamic sea ice models have the potential to yield multiple equilibrium flow and hence thickness states for appropriate seasonal daily wind and thermodynamic forcing. These multiple states are due to ‘plastic’ ice mechanics and are not ‘Budyko-Sellers’ albedo feedback multiple states. Each state consists of a mean seasonal ice thickness with annual outflow balancing net growth. Low flow states are thicker. In this paper we first demonstrate that with some caveats, a properly formulated ‘viscous plastic’ sea ice model where ‘rigid’ ice is approximated by very slow flow can successfully simulate plastic ice flow and stoppage of ice flow through narrow channels in agreement with observations and theory. The characteristics of this flow and stoppage are methodically examined by a series of initial value problems of ice flow and advection through various narrowing channels with different ice thicknesses being advected into the channel. Different rheologies are examined and the effect of different creep closure rates on stoppage is investigated using several day mechanistic simulations of flow into the channel employing explicit time stepping. In the case of parallel channels, numerical results are examined in light of analytic solutions. Together with idealized growth rates this simple channel model is used to illustrate the principle of multiple equilibrium states due to ice mechanics. Following this we utilize a 40 km resolution dynamic thermodynamic sea ice model with multiple openings from the Arctic Basin to examine the potential for multiple equilibrium flow states under pre-industrial atmospheric thermodynamic forcing together with daily wind field forcing taken from more current conditions. This potential is assessed by carrying out five year seasonal simulations initialized with different ice thicknesses. Intersection of seasonal averaged net growth and outflow thus obtained are then used to identify potential multiple states and assess their stability. With a coulombic rheology with modest cohesive strength, the results show three states two of which are stable. With an elliptical yield curve having higher cohesive strength only one low flow state is identified. Several ~ 100 year simulations are then carried out to show the existence of the two stable states and their seasonal flow and thickness characteristics. The decay time scales between pre-industrial low flow states and present high flow states are also examined via long term simulations. Finally, a simulation from 1960 to 2040 with estimated climatic warming is carried out and compared with equilibrium thickness states at discrete intervals to show the effect of inertia in the rate of ice decay due to ice mechanics. Forcing data reported in this paper are adequate to test the capability of other dynamic thermodynamic sea ice models to yield multiple flow states.

The CSIRO Mk3L climate system model version 1.0 – Part 1: Description and evaluation

Abstract. The CSIRO Mk3L climate system model is a coupled general circulation model, designed primarily for millennial-scale climate simulations and palaeoclimate research. Mk3L includes components which describe the atmosphere, ocean, sea ice and land surface, and combines computational efficiency with a stable and realistic control climatology. This paper describes the model physics and software, analyses the control climatology, and evaluates the ability of the model to simulate the modern climate. Mk3L incorporates a spectral atmospheric general circulation model, a z-coordinate ocean general circulation model, a dynamic-thermodynamic sea ice model and a land surface scheme with static vegetation. The source code is highly portable, and has no dependence upon proprietary software. The model distribution is freely available to the research community. A 1000-yr climate simulation can be completed in around one-and-a-half months on a typical desktop computer, with greater throughput being possible on high-performance computing facilities. Mk3L produces realistic simulations of the larger-scale features of the modern climate, although with some biases on the regional scale. The model also produces reasonable representations of the leading modes of internal climate variability in both the tropics and extratropics. The control state of the model exhibits a high degree of stability, with only a weak cooling trend on millennial timescales. Ongoing development work aims to improve the model climatology and transform Mk3L into a comprehensive earth system model.

Controls on Arctic Sea Ice from First-Year and Multiyear Ice Survivability

Abstract Recent observations of Arctic sea ice show that the decrease in summer ice cover over the last few decades has occurred in conjunction with a significant loss of multiyear ice. The transition to an Arctic that is populated by thinner, first-year sea ice has important implications for future trends in area and volume. Here, a reduced model for Arctic sea ice is developed. This model is used to investigate how the survivability of first-year and multiyear ice controls the mean state, variability, and trends in ice area and volume. A hindcast with a global dynamic–thermodynamic sea ice model that traces first-year and multiyear ice is used to estimate the survivability of each ice type. These estimates of survivability, in concert with the reduced model, yield persistence time scales of September area and volume anomalies and the characteristics of the sensitivity of sea ice to climate forcing that compare well with a fully coupled climate model. The September area is found to be nearly in equilibrium with climate forcing at all times, and therefore the observed decline in summer sea ice cover is a clear indication of a changing climate. Keeping an account of first-year and multiyear ice area within global climate models offers a powerful way to evaluate those models with observations, and could help to constrain projections of sea ice decline in a warming climate.

A finite element sea ice model of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago

The Canadian Arctic Archipelago (CAA) is a complex area formed by narrow straits and islands in the Arctic. It is an important pathway for freshwater and sea-ice transport from the Arctic Ocean to the Labrador Sea and ultimately to the Atlantic Ocean. The narrow straits are often crudely represented in coupled sea-ice–ocean models, leading to a misrepresentation of transports through these straits. Unstructured meshes are an alternative in modelling this complex region, since they are able to capture the complex geometry of the CAA. This provides higher resolution in the flow field and allows for more accurate transports (but not necessarily better modelling). In this paper, a finite element sea-ice model of the Arctic region is described and used to estimate the sea-ice fluxes through the CAA. The model is a dynamic–thermodynamic sea-ice model with elastic–viscous–plastic rheology and is coupled to a slab ocean, where the temperature and salinity are restored to climatology, with no velocities and surface elevation. The model is spun-up from 1973 to 1978 with NCEP/NARR reanalysis data. From 1979 to 2007, the model is forced by NCEP/DoE reanalysis data. The large scale sea-ice characteristics show good agreement with observations. The total sea-ice area agrees very well with observations and shows a sensitivity to the Arctic oscillation (AO). For 1998–2002, we find estimates for the sea-ice volume and area fluxes through Admunsen Gulf, McClure Strait and the Queen Elizabeth Islands that compare well with observation and are slightly better than estimates from other models. For Nares Strait, we find that the fluxes are much lower than observed, due to the missing effect of topographic steering on the atmospheric forcing fields. The 1979–2007 fluxes show large seasonal and interannual variability driven primarily by variability in the ice velocity field and a sensitivity to the AO and other large-scale atmospheric variability, which suggests that accurate atmospheric forcing might be crucial to modelling the CAA.

Polynyas in a dynamic-thermodynamic sea-ice model

Abstract. The representation of polynyas in viscous-plastic dynamic-thermodynamic sea-ice models is studied in a simplified test domain, in order to give recommendations about parametrisation choices. Bjornsson et al. (2001) validated their dynamic-thermodynamic model against a polynya flux model in a similar setup and we expand on that work here, testing more sea-ice rheologies and new-ice thickness formulations. The two additional rheologies tested give nearly identical results whereas the two new-ice thickness parametrisations tested give widely different results. Based on our results we argue for using the new-ice thickness parametrisation of Hibler (1979). We also implement a new parametrisation for the parameter h0 from Hibler's scheme, based on ideas from a collection depth parametrisation for flux polynya models.

Ocean circulation and sea ice distribution in a finite element global sea ice–ocean model

A newly developed global Finite Element Sea Ice–Ocean Model (FESOM) is presented. The ocean component is based on the Finite Element model of the North Atlantic (FENA) but has been substantially updated and extended. In addition to a faster realization of the numerical code, state-of-the-art parameterizations of subgrid-scale processes have been implemented. A Redi/GM scheme is employed to parameterize the effects of mesoscale eddies on lateral tracer distribution. Vertical mixing and convection are parameterized as a function of the Richardson number and the Monin–Obukhov length. A finite element dynamic-thermodynamic sea ice–model has been developed and coupled to the ocean component. Sea ice thermodynamics have been derived from the standard AWI sea ice model featuring a prognostic snow layer but neglecting internal heat storage. The dynamic part offers the viscous-plastic and elastic-viscous-plastic rheologies. All model components are discretized on a triangular/tetrahedral grid with a continuous, conforming representation of model variables. The coupled model is run in a global configuration and forced with NCEP daily atmospheric reanalysis data for 1948–2007. Results are analysed with a slight focus on the Southern Hemisphere. Many aspects of sea ice distribution and hydrography are found to be in good agreement with observations. As in most coarse-scale models, Gulf Stream transport is underestimated, but transports of the Kuroshio and the Antarctic Circumpolar Current appear realistic. The seasonal cycles of Arctic and Antarctic sea ice extents and Antarctic sea ice thickness are well captured; long- and short-term variability of ice coverage is found to be reproduced realistically in both hemispheres. The coupled model is now ready to be used in a wide range of applications.

The effects of resolving the Canadian Arctic Archipelago in a finite element sea ice model

Though narrow straits may have a strong influence on the large-scale sea ice mass balance, they are often crudely represented in coarse resolution sea ice models. Unstructured meshes, with their natural ability to fit boundaries and locally increase the mesh resolution, propose an alternative framework to capture the complex oceanic areas formed by coasts and islands. In this paper, we develop a finite element sea ice model to investigate the sensitivity of the Arctic sea ice cover features to the resolution of the narrow straits constituting the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. The model is a two-level dynamic-thermodynamic sea ice model, including a viscous-plastic rheology. It is run over 1979–2005, forced by daily NCEP/NCAR reanalysis data. Confronting qualitatively numerical experiments with observations shows a good agreement with satellite and buoys measurements. Due to its simple representation of the oceanic interactions, the model overestimates the sea ice extent during winter in the southernmost parts of the Arctic, while the Baffin Bay and Kara Sea remain ice-covered during summer. In order to isolate the benefits from resolving the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, a numerical experiment is performed where we artificially close the archipelago. Focusing on the large-scale sea ice thickness pattern, no significant change is found in our model, except in the close surroundings of the archipelago. However, the local and short-term influences of the ice exchanges are nonnegligible. In particular, we show that the ice volume associated to the Canadian Arctic Archipelago represents 10% of the Northern Hemisphere sea ice volume and that the annual mean ice export towards Baffin Bay amounts to 125 km 3 yr −1, which may play an important role on the convective overturning in the Labrador Sea.

Anomalies of Sea-ice transports in the Arctic

AbstractIn the Arctic, Sea-ice motion and ice export are prominent processes and good indicators of Arctic climate System variability. Sea-ice drift is Simulated using a dynamic–thermodynamic Sea-ice model, validated with retrievals from SsM/I Satellite observations. Both datasets agree well in reproducing the main Arctic drift patterns. In order to Study inner Arctic transports and ice volume anomalies, the Arctic Ocean is Split by ten boundaries, Separating the central Arctic Ocean from the Nordic and marginal Seas. It is found that the already dominant Sea-ice export through Fram Strait has increased at the expense of export through the Barents Sea in the most recent years investigated. Furthermore, ice export from the Eurasian marginal Seas increased Slightly, followed by greater ice production during the winter. In contrast to this, the Sea-ice volume moved within the Beaufort Gyre distinctly decreased. In total, the ice volume in the central Arctic decreased during the 40 year period covered by this Study. The changes in the ice volume correspond to two wind-driven circulation regimes of the Arctic Sea-ice motion, which recur approximately every 11 years. For the volume anomalies we derived a correlation of –0.59 to the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) index, lagging the NAO by 2 years.

Sea-ice arching and multiple flow States of Arctic pack ice

AbstractFlow of ice through narrow channels is Significantly affected by the amount of Shear Strength in plastic rheologies used in Sea-ice models as well as in reality. When thermodynamics is added to this problem, the capability of multiple flow States for the Same forcing through narrow passages arises. To understand this problem and examine the potential for Seasonal Stoppage of flow through passages constraining the Arctic basin outflow, the effect of Sea-ice rheology on idealized flow through narrow passages is first analyzed. This ideal analysis is then combined with thermodynamic effects and fluctuating wind fields in an Arctic basin dynamic–thermodynamic Sea-ice model with multiple outlet passages. The results demonstrate that the capability for multiple flow States existing through passages depends on the initial conditions and general ‘climate’ State, and yield insight into the general parameter range over which the Seasonal Stoppage might irreversibly Shift to an unconstrained outflow regime.

Dynamic–Thermodynamic Sea Ice Model: Ridging and Its Application to Climate Study and Navigation

Abstract A dynamic–thermodynamic sea ice model with the ocean mixed layer forced by atmospheric data is used to investigate spatial and long-term variability of the sea ice cover in the Arctic basin. The model satisfactorily reproduces the averaged main characteristics of the sea ice and its extent in the Arctic Basin, as well as its decrease in the early 1990s. Employment of the average ridge shape for describing the ridging allows the authors to suggest that it occurs in winter and varies from year to year by a factor of 2, depending on an atmospheric circulation pattern. Production and horizontal movement of ridges are the focus in this paper, as they show the importance of interannual variability of the Arctic ice cover. The observed thinning in the 1990s is a result of reduction in ridge formation on the Pacific side during the cyclonic phase of the Arctic Oscillation. The model yields a partial recovery of sea ice cover in the last few years of the twentieth century. In addition to the sea ice cover and average thickness compared with satellite data, the ridge amount is verified with observations taken in the vicinity of the Russian coast. The model results are useful to estimate long-term variability of the probability of ridge-free navigation in different parts of the Arctic Ocean, including the Northern Sea Route area.

Numerical simulation of ice-ocean variability in the Barents Sea region

A dynamic–thermodynamic sea ice model has been coupled to a three-dimensional ocean general circulation model for the purpose of conducting ocean climate dynamical downscaling experiments for the Barents Sea region. To assess model performance and suitability for such an application, the coupled model has been used to conduct a hindcast for the period 1990–2002. A comparison with available observations shows that the model successfully tracks seasonal and inter-annual variability in the ocean temperature field and that the simulated horizontal and vertical distribution of temperature are in good agreement with observations. The model results follow the seasonal and inter-annual variability in sea ice cover in the region, with the exception that the model results show too much ice melting in the northern Barents Sea during summer. The spatial distribution of the winter simulated sea ice cover is in close agreement with observations. Modelled temperatures and ice concentrations in the central Barents Sea are biased too high and too low, respectively. The probable cause is too high inflow of Atlantic Water into the Barents. The seasonal and inter-annual fluctuations in temperature and sea ice cover in the central Barents are, however, in excellent agreement with observations. Salt release during the freezing process in the numerical simulation exhibits considerable inter-annual variability and tends to vary in an opposite manner to the net inflow volume flux at the western entrance of the Barents Sea. Overall, the model produces realistic ice-ocean seasonal and inter-annual variability and should prove to be a useful tool for dynamical downscaling applications.

Description and evaluation of the bergen climate model: ARPEGE coupled with MICOM

A new coupled atmosphere–ocean–sea ice model has been developed, named the Bergen Climate Model (BCM). It consists of the atmospheric model ARPEGE/IFS, together with a global version of the ocean model MICOM including a dynamic–thermodynamic sea ice model. The coupling between the two models uses the OASIS software package. The new model concept is described, and results from a 300-year control integration is evaluated against observational data. In BCM, both the atmosphere and the ocean components use grids which can be irregular and have non-matching coastlines. Much effort has been put into the development of optimal interpolation schemes between the models, in particular the non-trivial problem of flux conservation in the coastal areas. A flux adjustment technique has been applied to the heat and fresh-water fluxes. There is, however, a weak drift in global mean sea-surface temperature (SST) and sea-surface salinity (SSS) of respectively 0.1 °C and 0.02 psu per century. The model gives a realistic simulation of the radiation balance at the top-of-the-atmosphere, and the net surface fluxes of longwave, shortwave, and turbulent heat fluxes are within observed values. Both global and total zonal means of cloud cover and precipitation are fairly close to observations, and errors are mainly related to the strength and positioning of the Hadley cell. The mean sea-level pressure (SLP) is well simulated, and both the mean state and the interannual standard deviation show realistic features. The SST field is several degrees too cold in the equatorial upwelling area in the Pacific, and about 1 °C too warm along the eastern margins of the oceans, and in the polar regions. The deviation from Levitus salinity is typically 0.1 psu – 0.4 psu, with a tendency for positive anomalies in the Northern Hemisphere, and negative in the Southern Hemisphere. The sea-ice distribution is realistic, but with too thin ice in the Arctic Ocean and too small ice coverage in the Southern Ocean. These model deficiencies have a strong influence on the surface air temperatures in these regions. Horizontal oceanic mass transports are in the lower range of those observed. The strength of the meridional overturning in the Atlantic is 18 Sv. An analysis of the large-scale variability in the model climate reveals realistic El Nino – Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and North Atlantic–Arctic Oscillation (NAO/AO) characteristics in the SLP and surface temperatures, including spatial patterns, frequencies, and strength. While the NAO/AO spectrum is white in SLP and red in temperature, the ENSO spectrum shows an energy maximum near 3 years.

Regional and interannual variability of ecosystem dynamics in the Southern Ocean

To investigate regional and interannual variability of the ecosystem in the Southern Ocean, a coupled circumpolar ice-ocean-plankton model has been developed.The ice-ocean component (known as BRIOS-2) is based on a modified version of the s-Coordinate Primitive Equation Model (SPEM) coupled to a dynamic-thermodynamic sea ice-model.The biological model (BIMAP) comprises two biogeochemical cycles - silica and nitrogen - and a prognostic iron compartment to include possible effects of micronutrient limitation.Simulations with the coupled ice-ocean-plankton model indicate that the physical-biological interaction is not limited to the effect of a varying surface mixed layer depth.In the Pacific sector, large anomalies in winter mixed layer depth cause an increased iron supply and enhanced primary production and plankton biomass in the following summer, whereas in the Atlantic sector variability in primary production is caused mainly by fluctuations of oceanic upwelling.Thus, the ACW induces regional oscillations of phytoplankton biomass in both sectors, but not a propagating signal.Furthermore, interannual variability in plankton biomass and primary production is strong in the Coastal and Continental Shelf Zone and the Seasonal Ice Zone around the Antarctic continent.Interannual variability induced by the ACW has large effects on the regional scale, but the associated variability in vertical carbon fluxes is negligible compared to the long-term carbon sequestration of the Southern Ocean.keywords: ACW, Southern Ocean, plankton biomass, primary production, interannual variability

Modeling the High-Frequency Component of Arctic Sea Ice Drift and Deformation

Abstract Buoy observations of sea ice drift show that sea ice motion and deformation contain substantial high-frequency variability at subdaily timescales. However, numerical simulations of the sea ice dynamics normally do not include processes on such short timescales. Instead, by applying traditional water-drag formulations for the ocean–sea ice boundary layer, the inertial frequencies tend to be omitted in the spectra of modeled sea ice motion and deformation due to fictitious ocean damping. Here a dynamic–thermodynamic sea ice model is presented that includes “inertial embedding” of the sea ice into the oceanic boundary layer to reproduce sea ice motion and deformation not only at daily and lower frequencies but also at subdaily frequencies up to 2 cycles per day and higher. Comparison with buoy data shows that the embedded model much more successfully simulates the observed sea ice motion in regard to the high-frequency component. The results demonstrate that both inertial embedding of the sea ice–oc...

Performance Analysis of a Multiprocessor Coupled Ice–Ocean Model for the Baltic Sea

Within the Swedish Regional Climate Modelling Programme (SWECLIM) a 3D coupled ice-ocean model for the Baltic Sea has been developed to simulate physical processes on timescales of hours to decades. The model code is based on the global ocean GCM of the Ocean Circulation Climate Advanced Modelling (OCCAM) project and has been optimized for massively parallel computer architectures. The Hibler-type dynamic-thermodynamic sea ice model utilizes elastic-viscous-plastic rheology resulting in a fully explicit numerical scheme that improves computational efficiency. A detailed performance analysis shows that the ice model causes generic workload imbalance between involved processors. An improved domain partitioning technique minimizes load imbalance, but cannot solve the problem completely. However, it is shown that the total load imbalance is not more than 13% for a mild winter and about 8% for a severe winter. With respect to parallel processor performance, the code makes the best use of available computer resources.

A Thickness and Enthalpy Distribution Sea-Ice Model

Abstract The theory of sea ice thickness distribution developed by Thorndike et al. has been extended to include sea ice enthalpy distribution. The extended theory conserves both ice mass and thermal energy, in the form of the heat stored in the ice, by jointly solving a thickness-distribution equation and an enthalpy-distribution equation. Both equations have been implemented in a one-dimensional dynamic thermodynamic sea-ice model with 12 ice thickness categories following the numerical procedure of Hibler. The implementation of the enthalpy-distribution equation allows the sea-ice model to account for any changes in the ice thermal energy induced by sea ice processes. As a result, the model is able to conserve not only the ice mass but also its thermal energy in the presence of ice advection, growth, melting, and ridging. Conserving ice thermal energy in a thickness-distribution sea ice model improves the prediction of ice growth, summer ice melt in particular, and therefore ice thickness. Inability to...

Improved Sea Ice Parcel Trajectories in the Arctic via Data Assimilation

An assimilated sea ice motion product is used to track ice parcels in several regions of the Arctic over time periods of one day to several weeks during 1992–1993. Motions simulated using a two-dimensional, dynamic-thermodynamic sea ice model are combined with motions derived from daily 85 GHz special sensor microwave/imager (SSM/I) imagery using an optimal interpolation method that minimizes error covariance. Assimilation attenuates the tracking error over the stand-alone model in comparison to buoy trajectories with the same starting location and time. The average 14-day assimilated trajectory's displacement error is as much as 34% lower than the model trajectory, while the RMS direction error is decreased by up to 10° (24%). Assimilation can also yield an estimate of dispersion, which is not retrievable by point buoy observations. An assimilation approach improves estimates of ice drift and has the potential to further the understanding of ice mass flux, freshwater flux, and pollutant transport in the polar regions.

Polynyas in a high-resolution dynamic-thermodynamic sea ice model and their parameterization using flux models

Polynyas in a high-resolution dynamic-thermodynamic sea ice model and their parameterization using flux models