Apis Florea Research Articles

Efficacy of botanicals against red pumpkin beetle and their impact on pollinator diversity in pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo L.) cultivation

This study aimed to assess insect pollinator diversity in pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo L.) and evaluate the bio-efficacy of botanicals for pest management while considering their impact on pollinators. Seven pollinator species were identified, with Hymenopterans, particularly honey bees, dominating. Apis dorsata (67.40%) was the most common pollinator, followed by Apis florea (14.28%). Other pollinators included species from Halictidae, Sphecidae, Syrphidae, and Pieridae families. Among the botanicals tested, Azadirachtin seed kernel extract (5%) and leaf extract (10%) effectively managed the red pumpkin beetle (Raphidopalpa foveicollis) with minimal harm to pollinators. Post-application, pollinator activity slightly increased after three to five days. The study highlights the effectiveness of neem-based botanicals in reducing pest populations while conserving pollinators, emphasizing the value of eco-friendly pest control in promoting sustainable pumpkin farming, improving both yield and crop quality.

Seasonal Occurrence of Honey Bees in Coriander

A multi-location trail was carried out at the Beekeeping Unit, TCA, Dholi (Muzaffarpur District, India) and University Apiary, RPCAU, Pusa (Samastipur District, India) during Rabi 2021-22 on Rajendra Dhania-2 variety of coriander. Spatial distribution of bee species in Pusa and Dholi showed that occurance of Italian bee Apis mellifera (F) was comparatively higher at Pusa (19.03± 6.29/ m2 / 10 min) as compared to Dholi (16.56± 5.47/ m2 / 10 min). Other species of honey bees viz. Indian hive bee, Apis cerana (F), rock bee Apis dorsata (F) and little bee Apis florea (F) were more abundant in Dholi as compared to Pusa. Maximum (number of bee/ m2 / 10 min) of Apis mellifera (24.02, 27.60), Apis dorsata (16.88, 14.89), Apis cerana (14.55, 11.64) and Apis florea (10.47, 8.63) were observed at 13:00, 15:00, 11:00 and 09:00 at Dholi and Pusa, respectively. The underlying factors of this distribution were identified as body size and dietary overlap. This study highlights the complexity of interactions between Apis spp. genus and shows how factors like body size and diet influence their distribution patterns.

Apis florea in Europe: first report of the dwarf honey bee in Malta

ABSTRACTS The Red dwarf honey bee (Apis florea), is a single-comb open-nesting member of the genus Apis with a natural distribution area stretching from the Indomalayan realm on the east to the Persian Gulf on the west. However, it is reportedly colonising new territories mainly due to anthropogenic activities. Nowadays it can be found from Taiwan on the east, to Jordan, the Arabian Peninsula and North-eastern Africa on the west. Here we present the first scientific record of a fully established colony of A. florea in Europe. The colony was found on Malta, a crossway of naval routes in the Mediterranean Sea. We documented the incident with photos, collected samples of workers and drones and sequenced the mtDNA COI gene to confirm assignment to A. florea. Also, we alert the competent authorities and the beekeeping community to be vigilant and ready to undertake effective eradication measures. In the paper, we discuss the risks and the potential consequences associated with the invasion of A. florea in Europe.

Molecular Identification of Dwarf Honey Bees (Apis florea Fabricius) Distributed in the Eastern Region of Iraq

Molecular Identification of Dwarf Honey Bees (Apis florea Fabricius) Distributed in the Eastern Region of Iraq

Understanding the insect foragers and their foraging behaviour on the mangrove Bruguiera cylindrica (L.) Bl. (Rhizophoraceae)

The breeding system of Bruguiera cylindrica, its associated foragers, and their foraging activity were carried out from 2018−2021 in the mangroves of Chettuva, of Thrissur district in the State of Kerala. The flowering of B. cylindrica commences during October and found to cease by the end of January. Bagging experiment revealed that they prefer xenogamous mode (88%) of reproduction though they had a small percentage of fruit set via autogamy (16%).Thirty five species of insects were recorded on the flowers of B. cylindrica. Among them, eleven species were foraging on the flowers of B. cylindrica. The most abundant foraging species were Chrysomya megacephala, Apis florea and Campsomeriella collaris.C. megacephala had significantly higher visitation rate (7.52 flowers/min) whereas Dolichopus sp. recorded significantly higher handling time (11.71 s). The highest pollen load was obtained from Chrysomya megacephala (161.50 ± 4.90). The peak foraging activity was recorded during 10.00 hrs. − 11.00 hrs. in the morning and 16.00 hrs. − 17.00 hrs. in the evening. The findings of the study complement the role and significance of insect foragers in the breeding of mangrove species.

Foraging Attributes of Insect Pollinators on Tulsi (Ocimum basilicum)

Pollination is an intricate relationship between plants and pollinators; this interaction is the best example of mutualism where pollinators utilize floral rewards while pollination accomplished on plants. Pollination ecology of tulsi (Ocimum basilicum) is poorly understood. Foraging attributes: foraging rate, foraging speed and transit time of pollinators are key performance indicator to determine their pollination efficiency. Foraging speed and foraging rate were recorded during blooming period with the help of stopwatch and transit time was calculated from foraging rate and foraging speed. The performance of seven pollinators; Apis florea, Amegilla cingulata, Megachile femoratella, Megachile sp., Apis cerana, Apis dorsata and Apis mellifera were evaluated on the basis of foraging attributes. Foraging rate, foraging speed and transit time varied during the blooming period week to week and pollinator species to species. The maximum foraging rate was observed with A. mellifera, maximum foraging speed was observed with A. florea and minimum transit time as well as wasted minimum time was calculated with A. mellifera. The maximum foraging rate, foraging speed and minimum transit time were observed with all the pollinators at the peak of blooming period. Based on foraging attributes A. mellifera performance was better than other pollinators on Tulsi.

Geographical variation in the forewing shape of the red dwarf honeybees revealed by landmark-based geometric morphometrics

Accurate intraspecific variation assessment is the prerequisite for determining subspecies, evolutionarily significant units, or management units across a species' range. However, intraspecific variation assessment is often hindered by inaccurate morphological results from traditional methods or high-cost genetic analyses. Geometric morphometrics is a promising technique for quantifying and visualising intraspecific diversity. We used landmark-based geometric morphometrics to investigate forewing shape variation and microtaxonomy of populations of Apis florea Fabricius 1787 (Apidae: Apini), which originated from some parts of Asia and Africa based on the 19 landmarks plotted at the venation intersections of forewings. We collected samples of 162 colonies from 36 different localities. On average, 13 workers per colony were analysed (1851 bees in total). Distinct spatial structures and significant differences in wing shape between the studied populations were revealed using canonical variate analysis, and no considerable overlap was detected between the colonies belonging to the western and eastern populations. The populations at higher latitudes showed significantly larger centroid sizes than those at lower latitudes, and a clinal variation in forewing size was confirmed. Significant distance-decay relationships between the studied populations were observed so that the populations located at the maximum geographical distance showed the most significant distance from each other and vice versa. Wing geometric morphometrics was an accurate tool for the reliable estimation of the population structure of the red dwarf honeybees. It is essential to increase the reliability of these variations by combining the results with further molecular data.

Foraging Behaviour of Sunflower Pollinators

A field experiment was carried out to gather data on the diversity and foraging activity of sunflower pollinators. The result revealed that distinct patterns among the various pollinators. Apis dorsata exhibited strong preference for evening foraging with highest visit rate observed at 18.00 hr, reaching an impressive visit of 28.96/ m2/ min followed by 12.00 hr (4.33/ m2/ min). Apis florea also displayed preference for evening foraging, with its peak visit rate of 0.40/ m2/ min occurring at 18.00 hrs. In case of Trigona iridipennis maximum visit noticed at 12.00 hr (1.43/ m2/ min) which was at par with visits at 14.00 hr (1.40/ m2/ min). Xylocopa fenestrata exhibited its peak foraging activity at 12.00 hr (0.10/ m2/ min). In case of lepidoptera, butterfly and skipper were visiting at morning session while moth preferred evening hours. More visits of Cheilomenes sexmaculata (0.14/ m2/ min) were recorded at 16.00 hrs. The diptera species, Ischiodon scutallaris exhibited higher activity level at 12.00 hr, with a visit rate of 0.08/ m2/ min.

Determination of Mineral Content and Physico-Chemical Properties of Apis Honey from Karnataka State

The present investigation analyzed Apis honey samples of dorsata, cerana, mellifera and florea spp. from Coorg and Kolar districts of Karnataka. The physical parameters, pH, optical density, viscosity, and moisture contents were analyzed for the Apis honey samples and were found to comply with international standards. The efficacy of Apis honey in medical research chiefly depends on its mineral constituents. Hence, the total ash content was calculated using the Ivanov and Chevanakova methods. An atomic absorption spectrophotometer and flame photometer were used to quantify minerals in honey samples. The total ash range was between 0.24±0.2 to 0.65±0.1 per cent. The F-test and ANOVA values of the total ash content of honey samples were significant at 5% levels. Honey of Apis dorsata had 4.33±0.01 ppm±SD of Calcium and 1.69±0.02 ppm±SD of Magnesium; 0.004±0.0001 ppm±SD of Chromium 0.09±0.02 ppm±SD of Iron was found in honey of Apis florea. Likewise, honey of Apis cerana had Copper (0.05±0.002 ppm±SD), Manganese (0.08±0.002 ppm±SD), Phosphorus (0.49±0.02 ppm±SD), Potassium (40.44±0.09 ppm±SD) and Sodium (4.37±0.06 ppm±SD). Zinc (0.06±0.002 ppm±SD) was present in honey of A. mellifera. All the mineral nutrients studied were within the compliance range and determined to be statistically significant (p< 0.05). It was concluded that the Karnataka Apis honey maintains its good standards.

From petals to seeds: Understanding the role of hymenopteran and dipteran pollinators in the reproductive success of onion (Allium cepa L.)

An experiment was conducted to assess the pollinator community of onion (Allium cepa L.) as well to find the pollinators contributing to a higher onion seed production. Fifteen insect pollinator species belonging to two orders and two families were found to be visiting onion flowers. The dwarf honeybee, Apis florea F. (Hymenoptera: Apidae) was most frequent pollinator among bees. The maximum visitation rate was recorded in the case of Eristalinus aeneus S. (Diptera: Syrphidae), while the maximum stay time was recorded for A. florea. For observing the pollination effectiveness, we used pollinator exclusive approach, and four pollination trials were maintained i.e., 100%, 50%, 25% and 0% pollination. Pollinator effectiveness was accessed in terms of yield parameters such as umbel weight, number of seed and seed weight. Compared to 0% pollination, plants with 100% and 50% pollination levels showed 44- and 19-times higher seed production in onion, respectively. Six major pollinators were tested for their pollination efficiency. The single visit efficiency in terms of the number of seeds showed that plants with A. florea pollination showed higher seed yield. There was an increase in the number of seeds and seed weight per umbel, proving that A. florea is an effective pollinator in onion production. Moreover, syrphid flies also contributed to the onion seed production, though they were less efficient pollinators.

Combinations of Lemongrass and Star Anise Essential Oils and Their Main Constituent: Synergistic Housefly Repellency and Safety against Non-Target Organisms.

The present study evaluated the housefly repellency of single-component formulations and combinations of lemongrass and star anise essential oils (EOs) and their main constituents. The efficacies of the combinations were compared against those of single-component formulations and DEET. Safety bioassays of all formulations and DEET on non-target species-guppy, molly, dwarf honeybee, and stingless bee-were conducted. GC-MS analysis showed that the main constituent of lemongrass EO was geranial (46.83%) and that of star anise EO was trans-anethole (92.88%). All combinations were highly synergistic compared to single-component formulations, with an increased repellent value (IR) of 34.6 to 51.2%. The greatest synergistic effect was achieved by 1.0% lemongrass EO + 1.0% trans-anethole combination, with an IR of 51.2%. The strongest, 100% repellent rate at 6 h was achieved by 1.0% geranial + 1.0% trans-anethole. They were twice as effective as DEET and caused obvious damage to housefly antennae under microscopic observation. All single-component formulations and combinations were benign to the four tested non-target species. In contrast, DEET was highly toxic to them. The synergistic repellency and biosafety of these two combinations are compellingly strong support for developing them into an effective green repellent.

Trend analysis of temperature and vegetation cover in the distribution range of Apis florea in Iran

Trend analysis of temperature and vegetation cover in the distribution range of Apis florea in Iran

Flight ranges of Tetragonula “nr” pagdeni and standardization of hive density for profitable coriander production in the semi-arid region of India

Stingless bees (Apidae: Meliponini) are the smallest of honey producing bees. The field investigation was carried out to record the effective foraging capacity of stingless bee Tetragonula “nr” pagdeni for standardizing its hive density in coriander and document the effect of bee visits on the seed quality parameters at Devihosur, Haveri, Karnataka, during 2019–2020. Four colonies were placed in the coriander’s field center, with treatments ranging from 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, and 32 m from the hive center. The diurnal and temporal activity of T. pagdeni and Apis florea (wild bee present in the study area) was recorded. The foraging activity of T. pagdeni and A. florea was confined to daytime from 9.00 to 17.00 h, reaching its zenith during 10.00–12.00 and 13.00–15.00 h. During the peak flowering period, the highest bee visitation (3.20/plant/minute) was noticed within the circle of 4 m from the hive. The stingless bees, T. pagdeni provided a high percentage of pollination up to a 20 m distance from the hive, showing that this is the common flying range of T. pagdeni when the same food source is accessible near the colony. Similarly, the seed quantity and quality parameters viz., seeds/umbel, seed yield, percent germination, seedling length, and vigour index were also recorded maximum values in all the treatments up to 20 m, from the hive. Whereas, the pollination success of bees decreased in successive treatments i.e., the plots at the flight range of 4 m from the hive recorded the highest seed yield (14.52 q/ha) compared to the plots at 32 m, 10.5 q/ha. Overall, the study suggests that ten colonies of T. pagdeni per acre are optimum for successful coriander seed production. The high pollination rate in coriander also depends on the unquantifiable high contribution of Apis florea in the study location

Status and prospects of Avocado cultivation in India

Avocado (Persia americana) is a native to tropical America. It was originated in Mexico and Central America, possibly from more than one wild species. The early Spanish explorers recorded its cultivation from Mexico to Peru. Avocado production increased almost 1100 percent as compared to 1961. In India, Avocado was introduced in Bangalore and hill stations like Kallar near Nilgris, Palani hills of Kodaikanal, Shrevaroy hills of Yercaud, Coorg during 1912 and 1940. Later the seedlings of those varieties spread over humid subtropical region but remain neglected. The avocado cultivation have gained an overwhelming popularity during last one decade due to nutritional properties of the fruits. Presently around 7000 tones of avocados annually and the production is increasing rapidly as more and more areas is being brought under cultivation. The agro- climatic conditions prevailing in various parts of the country appear to be favorable for bringing more areas under avocado. Recently several varieties belonging to all three horticultural races i.e., West Indian, Guatemalan and Mexican have been introduced in India. Some varieties such as Arka Supreme, Arka Ravi and TKD-1 were released by CHES(IIHR), Chettalli (Coorg) and HRS station Thayangudusai (TN). These research centres are maintaining large number of accession of avocado germplasm. CHES (IIHR), Chettalli standardized the cleft grafting method for multiplication of avocado. Avocado is planted at a distance of 5 to 8 meters depending on the vigour of variety and growth habit. In general, young avocado trees are given N, P2O5 and K2O in the proportion of 1:1:1 and older trees in the proportion of 2:1:2 . Both A & B types are planted in the orchards for proper pollination and sufficient number of pollinators should be encouraged by keeping honey bee boxes. The studies conducted at CHES, Chettalli revealed that Apis cerena was the major pollinator followed by Apis florea, Tetragonula sp. and ants. Avocado plants seedlings start bearing five to six years after planting while grafted plants start yielding in 3-4 years. Harvesting is done manually and bruising and exposing fruits to direct sunlight is avoided. The yield ranges from 100 to 500 fruits per tree. The peak harvest time is different in different region. Presently, there is very little organized marketing system for avocado in India as the production is small and production areas are scattered. Avocados are mostly produced in Coorg, Chikmagalur, Shivamogga, Kodaikanal, Lower Palani hills, Kallar and Wayanad. The demand of avocado is manly in metro cities like Chennai, Bengaluru, Mumbai, Delhi,Pune and Ahmadabad. A large quality of avocado and avocado products are being imported in the country to fulfil the demand. Avocado is mainly used fresh, in sandwich filling or in salads.. Several products of avocado i.e. Arka avocado chutney, Arka avocado bread spread, Spray dried avocado powder have been developed by ICAR-IIHR, Bangalore. The cultivation area is rapidly growing in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, North Eastern States etc. of the country. The seminars, workshops, field days, awareness programmes, demonstrations etc. conducted by ICAR-IIHR, Bangalore during last one decade played a vital role in popularization of avocado in the country. Visualizing the demand and rising popularity of avocado at domestic and international level, there is good scope of Avocado cultivation in India. There is need to provide suitable technological backup to fulfil the requirement of growers, processing industry and consumers

Anti-Herpes Simplex Virus and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of the Melittin Peptides Derived from Apis mellifera and Apis florea Venom.

Herpes simplex virus (HSV) is known to cause cold sores and various diseases in humans. Importantly, HSV infection can develop latent and recurrent infections, and it is also known to cause inflammation. These infections are difficult to control, and effective treatment of the disease remains a challenge. Thus, the search for new antiviral and anti-inflammatory agents is a necessity. Melittin is a major peptide that is present in the venom of the honeybee. It possesses a number of pharmacological properties. In this study, the effects of the melittin peptides from A. mellifera (MEL-AM) and A. florea (MEL-AF) against HSV-1 and HSV-2 were evaluated at different stages during the viral multiplication cycle in an attempt to define the mode of antiviral action using plaque reduction and virucidal assays. The results revealed a new finding that melittin at 5 µg/mL demonstrated the highest inhibitory effect on HSV through the direct inactivation of viral particles, and MEL-AF displayed a greater virucidal activity. Moreover, melittin was also observed to interfere with the process of HSV attachment to the host cells. MEL-AM exhibited anti-HSV-1 and anti-HSV-2 effects with EC50 values of 4.90 ± 0.15 and 4.39 ± 0.20 µg/mL, while MEL-AF demonstrated EC50 values of 4.47 ± 0.21 and 3.95 ± 0.61 µg/mL against HSV-1 and HSV-2, respectively. However, non-cytotoxic concentrations of both types of melittin produced only slight degrees of HSV-1 and HSV-2 inhibition after viral attachment, but melittin at 5 µg/mL was able to reduce the plaque size of HSV-2 when compared to the untreated group. In addition, MEL-AM and MEL-AF also exhibited anti-inflammatory activity via the inhibition of nitric oxide production in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophage cells, and they were also found to down-regulate the expressions of the iNOS, COX-2 and IL-6 genes. The highest inhibition of IL-6 mRNA expression was found after treatment with 10 µg/mL of MEL-AM and MEL-AF. Therefore, melittin peptides have displayed strong potential to be used as an alternative treatment for HSV infection and inflammatory diseases in the future.

History of Spread of the Dwarf Bees Apis florea in Yemen

History of Spread of the Dwarf Bees Apis florea in Yemen

Floral visitors of sesame (Sesamum indicum L.): Elucidating their nectar-robbing behaviour and impacts on the plant reproduction.

Nectar robbing is common in angiosperms, especially in long tubular flowers or flowers with spurs that keep nectar out of reach of visitors. However, the robbing behaviour of bees is less understood. Here, we studied the sesame visitors, their robbing behaviour, and the impacts of robbing on plant reproductive fitness. Diverse insect species (primarily members of Hymenoptera) visited sesame flowers. The most effective pollinators were Amegilla zonata, Apis cerana, Apis dorsata, Apis florea, Ceratina binghami, Halictus acrocephalus and Xylocopa amethystina. Almost all visitors with variable percentages revealed the nectar-robbing phenomenon. Robbing activity depended on a complex of multiple attributes, including the visitor's body size, the corolla tube length, the availability and accessibility of nectar, and the resource-collecting task allocation of bees. Robbing activity varied according to flower-visiting species, flowering period and daytime. Robbing was comparatively higher in the late flowering period at 10.00-14.00 h. In the case of robbing visits, flower handling time was lower, and the visitation rate remained higher than non-robbing visits. Robbing visits did not significantly affect fruit and seed sets of sesame. Therefore, we can interpret the nectar-robbing interactions on sesame as commensal, with pollinators benefitting without altering the plant's reproductive fitness.

Diversity, Abundance, and Foraging Behaviour of Insect Pollinators in Litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) under Hot and Subhumid Conditions

Insect pollinators and flowering plants have a long‐standing, coevolutionary, mutualistic relationship. One such example is the litchi tree (Litchi chinensis Sonn.), a fruit crop that relies on insect pollination. Litchi flowers are hermaphroditic, but they cannot self‐pollinate due to self‐sterility, unlike self‐pollinating plants. Therefore, insect pollinators are crucial to successful fruit development. To understand the pollinator’s foraging behaviour and diversity associated with litchi under hot and subhumid conditions, the present study was conducted on the Shahi variety of litchi at the ICAR‐Research Complex for Eastern Region, Farming System Research Centre for Hill and Plateau, Ranchi (Jharkhand), India. During the flowering period, a total of 19 species of insect pollinators from the orders Hymenoptera, Diptera, Lepidoptera, and Coleoptera were observed visiting litchi inflorescences. Apis mellifera and Apis dorsata were the most dominant pollinator species. Each species displayed distinct characteristics in terms of abundance and diversity. Varied foraging speeds (stay times) were also noted, with A. dorsata (6.94 s) being the fastest and Musca domestica (2.88 s) being the slowest. Pollinator activity was highest in the eastern direction, between 8:00 a.m. and 10:00 a.m. Apis florea had the highest foraging rate (visitation rate) (14.02 flowers visited per minute), followed by Apis mellifera, while Episyrphus taeniops​ had the lowest. Apis species were identified as the most abundant and frequent visitors in litchi orchards.

Role of Insects in Cross-Pollination and Yield Attributing Components of Fenugreek

Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) is a self-pollinated crop however insect pollination can improve the seed and fruit set. The present study was carried out at the agricultural research farm of The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Pakistan to enlist the pollinator community of fenugreek, their foraging behavior, and identify the most effective pollinator species in terms of plant reproductive success. The floral visitor community of fenugreek was comprised of six bees, four flies, one moth, and one butterfly species. The highest visitation frequency was observed for Apis florea (3.86 individuals/meter2/120 seconds) and the visitation rate for Apis dorsata (19.90 flower/120 seconds). The highest stay time on a single flower was observed for Ceratina smaragdula (3.94 seconds/flower). The maximum pod weight, pod length, and seed weight were recorded in C. smaragdula pollinated pods. Results suggest that C. smaragdula is an efficient pollinator of fenugreek in Bahawalpur in terms of plant reproductive success. Future studies should focus on the conservation of C. smaragdula and other allied bee species for enhanced crop pollination.

Bioactive Vitamin Profile Evaluation in Multifloral Apis Honey

Honey offers distinct nutritional and health advantages as well as organoleptic characteristics. Customers strongly value it not only as food but also as a medicinal and cosmetic element. Honey is mostly consisting of carbohydrates, which contribute to 95?97% of the dry weight. Honey also includes significant elements such as proteins, organic acids, vitamins, and amino acids. Because honey composition varies depending on local flora, it may be characterized by source or kind. The commercial value of monofloral honey may be greater than that of multifloral honey. The mix of volatile substances present in low amounts gives honey its distinctive aroma. In this investigation, thirty-five multifloral honeys from Coorg were selected for vitamin profiling using the high-performance liquid chromatography method. Seven vitamins of Apis honey, namely riboflavin (B2), thiamine (B1), pyridoxine (B6), cobalamin (B12), pantothenic acid (B5), riboflavin (B2), ascorbic acid (C), and niacin (B3), were analyzed. Seven vitamins of Apis honey, namely riboflavin (B2), thiamine (B1), pantothenic acid (B5), niacin (B3), pyridoxine (B6), cobalamin (B12), and ascorbic acid (C), were analyzed. The total quantity of the analytes in the samples showed the highest concentration of Vitamin B6 and Vitamin C with 23.87 and 24.98 mg/100 g for Apis florea honey, respectively. Vitamin B1 ranged from 5.23 to 7.45, B2 from 8.25 to 10.42, B3 from 9.96 to 12.33, and B5 from 6.41 to 8.56 mg/100 g of Apis honey samples. However, Vitamin B12 showed an insignificant concentration of 0.001 g/100 g of Apis honey. . KEYWORDS :Apis honey, Honey quality, Mutilfloral honey, Vitamin profile