Dutch National Police Research Articles

Quantifying the robustness of a Bayesian Belief Network in the context of Unmanned Aerial System threat prediction

Unmanned Aerial Systems (UASs), or drones, are becoming increasingly available to the general public. Because of this, organizations active in safety and security, such as the Dutch Armed Forces and the Dutch National Police, need to be prepared for possible UAS accidents and attacks. To that end, it is vital that the nature of the possible threat that UAS may pose is detected in a timely manner. A method that can be employed for this problem is a Bayesian Belief Network (BBN). Given the observations made of a UAS and its surroundings, a BBN is capable to determine the most likely type of threat posed by the UAS. Generally, the probabilities that are required as input for this method can be estimated from historical data if enough data are available. However, since only a small amount of data about drone incidents has been collected, expert opinion is used. This introduces uncertainty in the BBN as opinions of experts are subjective. This paper presents a means to construct a BBN for UAS threat prediction when no empirical data are available and determine the robustness of the output. The analysis is restricted specifically to NATO Class I drones (less than 150 kg) in law enforcement operations.

Virtual reality training for police officers: a comparison of training responses in VR and real-life training

ABSTRACT In policing, Virtual Reality scenario-based training (VR SBT) is being explored to complement real-life scenario-based training (RL SBT). We investigated whether relevant training responses in VR SBT, namely heart rate (HR), level of physical activity, mental effort, and perceived stress, resemble those in RL SBT. Utilizing a within-subject study design, we investigated the training responses of 237 police officers of the Dutch National Police. We found that the maximum HR and average level of physical activity were significantly higher in RL SBT, whereas invested mental effort was significantly higher in VR SBT. No significant differences were found in average HR and perceived stress. We also found that perceived stress in VR was predicted by participants’ VR experiences such as engagement with VR and experience of negative effects, but not by participant characteristics. Participants’ mental effort in VR was predicted by their VR experiences and participant characteristics, particularly gaming frequency. In conclusion, VR SBT can elicit perceived stress, mental effort, and average HR that resemble or exceed responses in RL SBT, providing a promising tool to complement police training.

The application of CT for 3D visualization of concealed bodies

In forensic radiology, computed tomography (CT) is often used as a medical imaging technique to identify the cause and manner of death of deceased victims of a possible crime. In this study, medical imaging is used to examine concealed bodies and packaging materials. Medical imaging techniques, mainly CT scan, were used to scan packaged or concealed bodies inside containers to identify clues and evidence indicating whether a crime might have been committed. Also, scene integrity and scene safety along with a systematic search for relevant evidentiary items value were considered.Eighteen concealed bodies that had been assessed using medical imaging techniques between 2010 and 2018 at the request of the Dutch National Police were selected. The file records of each case contained imaging data, a photographic record of the unpacking procedure, a list of all items and traces found in the package, and the forensic pathology report. The images were assessed with respect to the different aspects of the case and through a systematic approach.The packages included adult males, adult females, newborn infants, and animals. All human cases were related to criminal offences. In nine adult cases, evidence of a possible violent death could be determined using CT imaging. The cause of death in newborn infants, however, could not be determined. In cases of dismemberment, the completeness of the body could be determined by CT imaging, and the cutting surfaces of bones could be matched on CT images. Regarding scene safety and integrity, in this study all relevant macroscopic items were detected on the CT images.The CT-scans were supplemented with fiduciary markers to better map CT data with the real objects. This information in combination with 2D and 3D images provided the forensic investigator with information on how to unwrap the package layer by layer and help determine different types of packaging materials. Different textiles could not always be identified. The orientation of the body within the packages was provided in all cases, and advice could be given on the optimal approach to access the contents. The overall detection rate of items was 78%.This is one of the first studies to illustrate the contribution of medical imaging, specifically CT scan, to the analysis of concealed bodies and packaging materials prior to unpacking. This demonstrates its contribution to a systematic approach of the investigation by ensuring the safety and health of the investigator while documenting and maintaining the integrity of the crime scene. Imaging also provides information that can be helpful to determine whether a crime might have been committed and reducing the risk of damaging a concealed body. Medical imaging also provides the forensic investigator with information to draw up a workplan prior to unpacking, minimising loss of evidence and determining whether different forensic specialists (e.g., digital or DNA) are needed. It is therefore strongly recommended to use medical imaging, especially CT scanning, before opening a package containing a concealed body.

Predictive validity of a selection instrument measuring resilience: The INSPIRE resilience scale

ABSTRACT Military personnel needs to be resilient to be able to remain effective, motivated, and in good mental and physical health. Military organizations select on resilience to determine whether candidates are psychologically fit for their job. The INSPIRE Resilience Scale (IRS) is such a selection instrument that aims to assess the psychological resilience potential of candidates in high-risk professions. A longitudinal predictive validity study was conducted in five European Defense organizations and in the Dutch National Police. The IRS was submitted in selection (N = 11,404), and criterion data about performance and health were collected in the second half of the first training year (N = 726). The results based on correlational and regression analyses showed that the IRS scores significantly predicted the criterion measures. Emotional stability, part of the IRS, turned out to be the best predictor. Results also showed that candidates who dropped out of training had significantly lower means on the IRS in selection than candidates who were still in training in the second half of the first training year. Overall, the IRS proved to be a valid instrument to assess resilience potential in candidates for high-risk professions. Selecting on resilience may therefore contribute to training success and reduction of health problems.

Sudden death during physical restraint by the Dutch police

Backgroundand goal: The Police is sometimes confronted with the death of a subject during physical restraint. In most of these cases a clear Cause of Death (COD) cannot be determined by the Pathologist. The goal of this research is to find and clarify a pattern and pinpoint a clearer COD. MethodThe research group is compiled of 38 closed police case files from the NPIID (National Police Internal Investigation Department) between 2005 and 2016. The control group is compiled of cases involving excitation and restraint, without leading to death. 148 cases were included from the NPIID between 2005 and 2016 and the Violence Registration Database of the Dutch National Police between 2014 and 2015. Case files of both the research and the control group were systematically analyzed and compared. Results and conclusionThe observed patter shows that subjects dying during Physical Restraint are mostly males between 30 and 40 years old with a BMI above 30 kg/m2. Both BMI and age are remarkably lower in the control group. Subjects were encountered in a state of excitation mostly attributed to (multiple) drugs (cocaine, MDMA or cannabis). The physical restraint portrayed a pattern of escalation with restraint being mostly face-down, hands cuffed to the back, receiving thoracic pressure, resulting in a high total amount of force used. In the research group 44.7% (17/38) of subjects were encountered (partially) unclothed versus 4.1% (6/148) in the control group.Cause of death in these cases seems to be multifactorial and is comprised of both personal factors and factors during and after the struggle. The different factors are comingled and augment each other. The end effect is that the subjects end up in a fatal spiral.

Checks and balances in democratic control of public police. A case study of the Dutch national police after the reform

ABSTRACT This paper researches the quality of democratic control of the public police in a democratic society. Governance structures tend to be complex, reflecting that in democratic societies the police perform a wide range of tasks, both (inter) nationally and locally. Given the variety of police authorities and consultations at different levels, is there room for adequate democratic oversight? In this article, a theoretical frame on democratic control is drawn up which is applied on the recently established Dutch system of national police. Based on an extensive multi-method field research the authors conclude that the governance of the Dutch national police is not multi-level, that centralist influences are strong, that the mechanisms for vertical integration of local concerns in national policies are weak, and that there is a democratic deficit within the Dutch police system.

The physical competence test of the Dutch National Police: The effects of wearing a police uniform on test performance

ABSTRACT In this study, we investigated the effects of wearing a police uniform and gear on officers’ performance during the Physical Competence Test (PCT) of the Dutch National Police. In a counterbalanced within-subjects design, twenty-seven police officers performed the PCT twice, once wearing sportswear and once wearing a police uniform. The results showed clear indications that wearing a police uniform influenced the performance on the PCT. Participants were on average 14 seconds slower in a police uniform than in sportswear. Furthermore, performing the test in uniform was accompanied by higher RPE-scores and total physiological load. It seems that wearing a police uniform during the test diminishes the discrepancy between physical fitness needed to pass the simulated police tasks in the PCT and the job-specific physical fitness that is required during daily police work. This suggests that wearing a police uniform during the test will increase the representativeness of the testing environment for the work field.

A part-declared blind testing program in firearms examination

In 2015 and 2016 the Central Unit of the Dutch National Police created and submitted 21 cartridge case comparison tests as real cases to the Netherlands Forensic Institute (NFI), under supervision of the University of Twente (UT). A total of 53 conclusions were drawn in these 21 tests. For 31 conclusions the underlying ground truth was “positive”, in the sense that it addressed a cluster of cartridge cases that was fired from the same firearm. For 22 conclusions the ground truth was “negative”, in the sense that the cartridge cases were fired from different firearms. In none of the conclusions, resulting from examinations under casework conditions, misleading evidence was reported. All conclusions supported the hypothesis reflecting the ground truth. This article discusses the design and results of the tests in more detail.

Species justice for police eagles: analyzing the Dutch ‘flying squad’ and animal-human relations

Dutch national police recently became the world’s first force to train eagles to combat the growing rise of drones within the Netherlands. Partnering with an eagle-training security firm, Guard From Above, both organizations believe using eagles to intercept and retrieve drones is the most effective countermeasure to handle rogue drones in the skies. This paper questions whether such a police operation to increase air security respects the rights of the eagles and ensures the animals’ protection from unreasonable injury, harm and suffering. Such an examination lies at the intersection of green criminological perspectives and critical security studies’ scholarship, an intersection of which I consider more thoroughly. By implementing a qualitative media analysis, this paper examines twenty media reports detailing the facts of the Dutch ‘Flying Squad.’ I contend that police agencies in the West must seriously consider such eagle initiatives as intrusive, harmful practices. The findings suggest that conceptualizing the eagles as exceptional ‘biotechnological’ state agents may increase sky security in Western countries, but such anthropocentric logics of security minimize the concerns for ‘species justice’ and the safeguards for eagles.

Job-specific mandatory medical examinations for the police force.

Mandatory medical examinations (MMEs) of workers should be based on the health and safety requirements that are needed for effectively performing the relevant work. For police personnel in the Netherlands, no job-specific MME exists that takes the specific tasks and duties into account. To provide the Dutch National Police with a knowledge base for job-specific MMEs for police personnel that will lead to equitable decisions from an occupational health perspective about who can perform police duties. We used a stepwise mixed-methods approach in which we included interviews with employees and experts and a review of the national and international literature. We determined the job demands for the various police jobs, determined which were regarded as specific job demands and formulated the matching health requirements as specific as possible for each occupation. A total of 21 specific job demands were considered relevant in different police jobs. These included biomechanical, physiological, physical, emotional, psychological/cognitive and sensory job demands. We formulated both police-generic and job-specific health requirements based on the specific job demands. Two examples are presented: bike patrol and criminal investigation. Our study substantiated the need for job-specific MMEs for police personnel. We found specific job demands that differed substantially for various police jobs. The corresponding health requirements were partly police-generic, and partly job-specific.

Motives for Filing a False Allegation of Rape

The list of motives by Kanin (1994) is the most cited list of motives to file a false allegation of rape. Kanin posited that complainants file a false allegation out of revenge, to produce an alibi or to get sympathy. A new list of motives is proposed in which gain is the predominant factor. In the proposed list, complainants file a false allegation out of material gain, emotional gain, or a disturbed mental state. The list can be subdivided into eight different categories: material gain, alibi, revenge, sympathy, attention, a disturbed mental state, relabeling, or regret. To test the validity of the list, a sample of 57 proven false allegations were studied at and provided by the National Unit of the Dutch National Police (NU). The complete files were studied to ensure correct classification by the NU and to identify the motives of the complainants. The results support the overall validity of the list. Complainants were primarily motivated by emotional gain. Most false allegations were used to cover up other behavior such as adultery or skipping school. Some complainants, however, reported more than one motive. A large proportion, 20% of complainants, said that they did not know why they filed a false allegation. The results confirm the complexity of motivations for filing false allegations and the difficulties associated with archival studies. In conclusion, the list of Kanin is, based on the current results, valid but insufficient to explain all the different motives of complainants to file a false allegation.

Raising Barriers to ‘Outlaw Motorcycle Gang-Related Events’

textabstractFighting outlaw motorcycle gangs is currently one of the top priorities of many governments around the world. This is due to the notion that outlaw motorcycle gangs do not consist solely of motorcycle enthusiasts. Numerous cases reveal that these clubs, or at least their members, are involved in (organised) crime. In order to tackle these clubs, the former Dutch Minister of Security and Justice announced a whole-of-government strategy towards outlaw motorcycle gangs in 2012. As part of this effort, authorities such as the Dutch National Police, the Public Prosecution Service, the Dutch Tax Authority and local governments aim to cooperate in order to disrupt and restrict outlaw motorcycle gangs by means of Criminal, Administrative and Civil Law. Part of this strategy is to hinder club-related events. This article discusses the latter strategy in light of the distinction between prevention and pre-emption. As the latter two concepts are often used interchangeably, this article attempts to use a more strict division between prevention and pre-emption. Thereby, it becomes apparent that outlaw motorcycle gangs are to some extent governed through uncertainty. The author suggests that maintaining the ‘prevention–pre-emption distinction’ can offer an interesting and valuable point of departure for analysing today’s crime policies.

Situational prevention of terrorism. Remarks from the field of counterterrorism in the Netherlands on Newman and Clarke’s Policing Terrorism

In this paper I shall discuss how criminal investigation might contribute to a situational approach to terrorism. Therefore I discuss Policing Terrorism by Newman and Clarke, and confront it with experiences from work in the field of counterterrorism: criminal investigations at the Dutch National Police Agency (NPA). I demonstrate that Newman and Clarke have too narrow a scope on policing terrorism, in particular when it comes to the role of criminal investigation. They restrict their focus to local police work in the phases immediately before and after a terrorist attack. This is unfortunate because case files show that criminal investigators play a central role in the prevention of terrorism. They intervene in earlier phases of terrorist preparation, target a wider range of terrorist offences than terrorist attacks, and prosecute radicals for their non-terrorist offences. Furthermore, criminal investigations offer insights that might be of help in developing an SCP approach to terrorism.

Governmental filtering of websites: The Dutch case

Following the example of Norway and other European Countries, such as Sweden and Denmark, in April 2007 the Dutch government started filtering and blocking web pages with child pornographic content. In this paper we present a research into the technological, legal and practical possibilities of this measure. Our study leads us to the conclusion that the deployment of filters by or on behalf of the Dutch government is not based on any founded knowledge concerning the effectiveness of the approach. Furthermore, the actions of the Dutch law enforcement authorities do not avail over legal powers to filter and block internet traffic. Consequently the Dutch filtering practice was found to be unlawful. The government could enact a law that provides the police with the relevant powers. However, child porn filters always cause a certain amount of structural overblocking, which means that the government is then engaged in structural blocking of information that is not against the law. This would be in conflict with basic rights as laid down in the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms and in national legislation. Maintaining a blacklist that is serious in size (a necessary condition for being effective), and at the same time is up-to-date and error-free (which is needed to prevent overblocking), is very labour-intensive, if not impossible to maintain. From the Dutch national police policy perspective it follows that putting so much labour in maintaining a blacklist cannot be considered as a police task. Why then did the Dutch police start filtering? In a society where child pornography is judged with abhorrence, in which safety is rated higher then privacy, and in which managers and politicians frequently have a naive faith in technology, the advocates of internet filters against child pornography quickly find wide-spread support. Although this paper refers to the situation in The Netherlands, it includes a number of elements and issues that are relevant to other European States as well.

Combating Organized Crime in Europe: Practicalities of Police Cooperation

Ludo Block is a former Dutch police officer who from 1999 till 2004 served as the police liaison officer for the Dutch National Police Agency in Moscow. In this article he responds to claims that the extent of police cooperation in Europe is insufficient, stating that the extent to which such claims are justified is unclear, as most appear to be based on anecdotal evidence—systematic evaluations of police cooperation are scarce. With the aim of providing a better understanding of international police cooperation in combating organized crime, this article investigates practices of European police cooperation. Particular attention is given to a case study of a drug-trafficking investigation, the daily practices of police liaison officers, and joint investigation teams. These demonstrate that, notwithstanding room for improvement, extensive and successful police cooperation does exist in Europe. Various factors influencing police cooperation are identified and illustrate that it is a complex and dynamic field. It can therefore be concluded that claims about the state of play of European police cooperation based on anecdotal evidence are unable to present an accurate picture.