Durian Research Articles

Carotenoid accumulation and gene expression during durian (Durio zibethinus) fruit growth and ripening

Carotenoid content in durian (Durio zibethinus) fruit is an important aspect of fruit quality. We analyzed fruit size, color, carotenoid composition and expression of genes involved in carotenogenesis of two durian cultivars ‘Chanee’ and ‘Monthong’ with differences in pigmentation during growth and ripening. The ripe fruit of ‘Monthong’ has a greater diameter and fruit weight than that of ‘Chanee’, while total carotenoid concentration was approximately 6-fold higher in ‘Chanee’ than in ‘Monthong’. The major carotenoids in the fruit pulp were β-carotene and α-carotene, with minor carotenoids being lutein and zeaxanthin. Significant differences in α-carotene and β-carotene levels were seen between the two cultivars. We cloned fragments of PSY, PDS, ZDS, CRTISO, LCYB, LCYE, CYCB, BCH, ECH and Or genes from durian. Expression analysis of the carotenoid biosynthetic genes using qPCR showed that ZDS expression positively correlated with increases in total carotenoids, β-carotene, α-carotene, and lutein content and LCYE expression correlated with total carotenoids and β-carotene content. In contrast, LCYB showed a negative correlation with total carotenoids, β-carotene, α-carotene and lutein. It can be concluded that carotenoid accumulation during durian fruit growth is regulated by the balanced expression of the ZDS, LCYE and LCYB genes.

Carotenoid accumulation in durian (Durio zibethinus) fruit is affected by ethylene via modulation of carotenoid pathway gene expression

Carotenoid content in durian (Durio zibethinus) fruit is an important aspect of fruit quality, with different cultivars distinguished by differing pigmentation. We have studied the dependence of carotenogenesis on ethylene. Fruit of the cultivar ‘Chanee’ harvested at the mature stage were either left untreated (controls), treated with 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) for 12 h, or treated with application of an aqueous ethephon solution to the stem end, or treated for 12 h with 1-MCP followed by ethephon application. Fruit were then stored for 9 d at 25 °C. Pulp color of durian became steadily yellowish as a result of accumulation of carotenoids, which were mainly beta-carotene, and alpha-carotene, with a minor amount of zeaxanthin and lutein. 1-MCP delayed the increase in the accumulation of beta-carotene, alpha-carotene, and zeaxanthin, but not lutein. In contrast, ethephon had no significant effect on carotenoid accumulation. The expression of zeta-carotene desaturase (ZDS), lycopene beta-cyclase (LCYB), chromoplast specific lycopene beta-cyclase (CYCB) and beta-carotene hydroxylase (BCH) genes was highly correlated with carotenoid content and pulp color.1-MCP resulted in significant down-regulation of ZDS, LCYB, CYCB and BCH expression. The accumulation of beta-carotene and alpha-carotene appears to be controlled by the level of expression of LCYB gene, whose function was tested in bacteria to show conversion of lycopene and delta-carotene to beta-carotene and alpha-carotene, respectively. These results suggest that ripening-induced carotenoid accumulation is regulated by endogenous ethylene controlling the expression of key genes such as LCYB.

Enzymatic Hydrolysis Using Ultrasound for Bioethanol Production from Durian (Durio zibethinus) Seeds as Potential Biofuel

The appealing second generation bioethanol production brings a good promise to achieve a fuel production that is renewable and sustainable; this makes durian (Durio zibethinus) seed interesting to take advantage of, especially for a tropical country like Malaysia. This paper aims to produce bioethanol from durian seed by utilizing ultrasound technique in its enzymatic hydrolysis process. 9 % (w/v) pre-treated durian seed was brought into the ultrasound-assisted glass reactor to begin the liquefaction and saccharification processes. Bacillus licheniformis Type XII-A was employed, and ultrasound at 50% amplitude for 60 min was set for liquefaction process; while amyloglucosidase from Aspergillus niger was used, and ultrasound at 40% amplitude for 120 min was run for saccharification process. The sum of both processes in hydrolysis yielded41.07 g/L of reducing sugar, which was immediately brought to fermentation stage. Saccharomyces cerevisiaewas employed for fermentation and resulted 18.48 g/L (0.44 g ethanol/g glucose), which is equivalent to 86.27% of theoretical ethanol yield (0.51 g ethanol/g glucose) after 84 h of fermentation at 37 °C with 150 rpm incubator shaker. The ethanol purity was improved in the next stage, distillation. Using zeolite as adsorbent, ethanol with purity of 95.7% (v/v) was produced. From the acquired results, durian seed shows a justifiably potential as a second generation bioethanol feedstock. To further improve its potential, studies of optimization using this feedstock is highly encouraged.

Phylogenetic Relationships of Local Durian Species based on Morphological Characteristics and PCR-RFLP Analysis of the Ribosomal Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) DNA

<p>In this study, twenty local durian accessions obtained from Central Java in situ collection were characterized using the morphological characteristics and the restriction patterns which generated from the region spanning the internal transcribed spacers ITS LEU and ITS 4. Morphological characteristics of durian leaf, stem, tree, and fruit showed variations for the different accessions, whereas polymerase chain reaction (PCR) products of ribosomal DNA region showed a low length of variation. The size of the PCR products and the restriction analyses with the restriction endonucleases Bsp1431yielded a restriction pattern for each accessions. The results of this study can be utilized by local durian farmers as a preliminary reference for durian propagation. The data obtained need to be supported by further research using the other molecular markers to obtain more accurate data. The clear identity of durian species can help the management of propagation systems by farmers to get superior local durian.</p><p><strong>How to Cite</strong></p><p>Fibriana, F., & Hadiyanti, L. N. (2016). Phylogenetic Relationships of Local Durian Species based on Morphological Characteristics and PCR-RFLP Analysis of the Ribosomal Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) DNA. <em>Biosaintifika: Journal of Biology & Biology Education</em>, 8(3), 362-370. </p>

Nondestructive Determination of Maturity of the Monthong Durian by Mel-Frequency Cepstral Coefficients (MFCCs) and Neural Network

The challenging for buyers around the globe to identify good quality of Durian. For several kinds of Durian, it may be difficult for buyers to determine the Durian quality by appearance. The ability to select only good quality Durian without cutting or cleaving is useful because buyers will not waste money ordering undesirable Durian.This paper proposes a nondestructive technique to determine the stages of maturity of durian fruits. The presented methodology utilizes the concept of pattern matching. We used the local knocking equipment to knock the durian for knocked-sound. After that the knocked-sound was analyzed and generated to Mel-frequency cepstral coefficients (MFCCs) that is used to train data for the classifier. Feed-Forward Neural Network was used for the classifier and can effectively classification the stages of maturity of durian fruits with accuracy rate more than 82%.

Rician k-Factors-Based Sensor for Fruit Classification by Maturity Stage

This paper has proposed a non-destructive, non-invasive sensor system for classifying durian fruits according to the maturity stages. The design of the sensor system has adopted the principle of wireless communications in which the Rician k-factors were utilized to determine the fruit maturity. The sensor is operable at the 915 MHz frequency. The simulation and experimental results revealed that the export grade durian had the higher reflected wave-based k-factors but lower scattered wave-based k-factors, when compared with the immature durian. The findings also showed that the k-factor thresholds for the reflected and scattered waves of $3 \times 10^{4}$ and 128 could achieve an accuracy rate of as high as 92.7% with regard to the durian maturity.

Effects of forest and cave proximity on fruit set of tree crops in tropical orchards in Southern Thailand

Abstract:Deforestation and forest fragmentation are contributing to declines in crop pollinator populations worldwide. Several studies have examined the impact of forest proximity on plant pollination ecology, but concentrated on single crop species. However, it can be more informative to investigate multiple crop and pollinator species in a community, because different pollinator groups may respond differently to forest distance. We evaluated flower visitor diversity, visitation frequency, and fruit set for three crop species (rambutan, durian and mango) in 10 pairs of mixed fruit orchards. Each pair consisted of one orchard near to (< 1 km) and one orchard far from (> 7 km) the forest edge. Rambutan fruit set was significantly influenced by distance to forest. The main visitors of rambutan flowers were stingless bees. In contrast, the dominant visitors to durian and mango flowers were nectarivorous bats and flies, respectively, and the fruit set of these crops were not significantly influenced by distance to forest. However, durian fruit set was negatively affected by distance to the nearest cave inhabited by nectarivorous bats. This study demonstrates that both caves and forests can be important pollinator sources for agricultural crops, and that the dispersal success of pollinators is related to isolation from source habitats. Maintaining forest patches and limestone karsts may provide stepping stones across fragmented landscapes, and attract greater numbers of pollinators to agricultural areas.

Nondestructive Determination of the Maturity of the Durian Fruit in the Frequency Domain Using the Change in the Natural Frequency

This paper proposes a nondestructive technique to determine the stages of maturity of durian fruits. The presented methodology utilizes the electromagnetic scattering properties from the fruits over time for identification of the stage of maturity using its natural frequencies. Both simulation and experimental results show that the natural frequencies in the scattering responses change with the maturity of the durian fruit. Particularly, the change in the fundamental resonant frequency is used as a possible identification criterion for characterization of the stage of maturity. This is because the dielectric constant of the core of the fruit changes with its degree of maturity. In addition, the experimental results indicate that the variation of the dominant resonant frequency of durian fruits varies at different stages of maturity and this has the potential to be applied as a criterion to identify the stages of maturity.

1-Methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) inhibits ethylene production of durian fruit which is correlated with a decrease in ACC oxidase activity in the peel

Fruit of cv. Monthong durian (Durio zibethinus Murr.) were treated for 12h with 0 (control) and 500nLL−1 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) at 25°C and were then stored at a temperature of 15°C. The fruit were transferred from a temperature of 15°C to a temperature of 25°C within a 3-day interval. 1-MCP treatment did not affect the relatively low rate of ethylene production in fruit stored at a temperature of 15°C. In contrast, 1-MCP delayed the dramatic increase in ethylene production in fruit that were transferred from a temperature of 15°C to a temperature of 25°C. It is well known that the peel (husk) produces much more ethylene than the pulp, hence, the effects of 1-MCP on the peel will likely overshadow any effect on the pulp. In the peel, 1-MCP had no effect on 1-aminocyclopropene-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) synthase activity, but decreased ACO activity. ACC levels in the peel were not affected by the treatment at 25°C. In the pulp, by contrast, ACO activity was not affected, but ACS activity was not inhibited at 25°C and ACC levels were found to be lower, after the 1-MCP treatment. It was concluded that 1-MCP seems to inhibit ethylene production of durian mainly by preventing an increase in ACC oxidase activity in the peel.

Perbedaan Jumlah Lalat Tertangkap Sticky Trap Antara Menggunakan Umpan Ekstrak Buah Durian Dengan Umpan Ekstrak Kayu Manis

Given the fact that flies are attracted by strong odors, flies controlling can be carried out by using scent lure trap. However, flies’ most preferred scent has not been known. This study aimsto determine difference in the number of flies caught on sticky traps between using lures of durianfruit extract and cinnamon extract lure. Durian fruit extracts contains alcohol while cinnamon contains eugenol.This is a quasi-experimental design research with Only Control Group Design Post-Test. This research was conducted in TPS of Bukit Barisan. This study covers the extraction with alcohol solvent. The extraction result was then dropped into the sticky trap and subsequently used to catchflies. The results shows that there were higher average number of flies caught on sticky trap ofcinnamon extract lure with 12-21 flies / trap than those in durian fruit extract trap which were only 10-14 flies / trap. The results of the data analysis by T test shows that there were difference in thenumber of flies caught on sticky traps between using lures of durian fruit extract and cinnamon extract (P = 0.033 <0.05)It is advisable to use physical ways of using sticky traps with durian fruit or cinnamon . In addition to their safety and environmentally friendly, they are proven to reduce flies population.

Activated Carbon from Bio-wastes of Durian Fruits as Active Material for Electrodes of Electric Double-layer Capacitors

In this study, bio-wastes from durian fruits such as seeds and shells have been used as precursor materials to prepare activated carbon (AC). While the applicability of a one-step method of impregnation-activation has been investigated for the activation of durian shells, a two-step method of carbonization-impregnation-activation has been tried for the durian seeds. Durian shells based AC (DSh-AC) was found to have a BET surface area () of 2004 m2 g-1 and the durian seeds based AC (DS-AC) had of 1176 m2 g-1. A new approach to electrical double-layer capacitor (EDLC) fabrication has been attempted to avoid the use of polymer binders and organic solvents in the electrodes by coating the electrode material directly on the separator. Instead of coating onto metal current collector, the AC was coated on a glass microfiber filter which was used as the separator to form the electrode. As an electrode material in the EDLC, DSh-AC performed well with a specific capacitance () between 72 and 82 F g-1 whereas the DS-AC showed lower values of between 64 and 70 F g-1. The reasonable good results indicate that the simple approach of device fabrication can also produce EDLCs with satisfactory performance parameters.

PENGARUH WAKTU FERMENTASI TEMPOYAK TERHADAP SIFAT ORGANOLEPTIK SAMBAL TEMPOYAK

Tempoyak a fermented food from durian fruit with a sour taste. Tempoyak made with the addition of salt as much as 1-1.5% into pulp which is then cured for three to seven days at room temperature. This study aims to determine the effect of variations in the level of consumer preferences of the fermentation time in processing tempoyak sauce. The research was conducted three phases, namely fermentation stage tempoyak with treatment fermentation time (3, 5, and 7 days), the processing stage tempoyak sauce, and phase analysis of the level of preference. Results of the analysis conducted on the analysis of the level of preference expressed in tempoyak sauce stated that there was no noticeable difference in tempoyak sauce based parameters tempoyak sauce taste and texture. But there is a noticeable difference in tempoyak sauce based on the parameters of color and flavour tempoyak sauce. From the color parameters, panelists preferred the tempoyak sauce with fermentation time treatment 3 and 5 days. While the parameters of flavour, panellists preferred the tempoyak sauce with fermentation time treatment 5 and 7 days.Keywords: Fermentation, tempoyak, tempoyak sauce

POTENSI KOMODITI UNGGULAN AGRIBISNIS HORTIKULTURA DAN STRATEGI PENGEMBANGANNYA DI KABUPATEN HALMAHERA SELATAN

ABSTRACT SUPERIOR COMMODITY POTENTIAL OF HORTICULTURE AGROBUSSINESS AND DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY IN SOUTH HALMAHERA REGENCY. This study was conducted to evaluate the potential of the horticulture superior commodity, growth structure, relation of farm income and to define strategy formulation of superior commodity development in South Halmahera regency. Study was done using survey approach on location basis of horticulture superior commodity. Location was defined by multistage random sampling in South Halmahera regency. Samples were taken by purposive sampling method, based on the criteria including the stakeholders of horticulture commodity spreading around research location. Data were analyzed using Location Quotient (LQ) method comparing the regency PDRB and the province PDRB, using localization coefficient (αi) by defining growth structure of commodity focusing on either one areal or not; using specialization coefficient on one or more of commodities at one certain areal location, using Basic Service Ratio (BSR, the comparison of commodity basis and non basis of commodity, and SWOT analysis formulating the internal and external strategy. Based on LQ analysis, commodities of red pepper, lanseh and durian fruits had LQ value > 1, indicating that these commodities were categorized sector basis and tomato commodity LQ < 1 included into non basis sector or inferior commodity. Analysis of αi indicated that horticulture commodity was not concentrated into one location of region. In addition, analysis of , indicated that commodity of horticulture sub sector was not focused on one commodity. Analysis of BSR indicated that BSR value varied from one year to the other next year, such as in year of 2009 was 5.38, year of 2012 was 7.41 and year of 2013 was 10.22. The BSR > 1 indicated that correlation between sector basis of commodity contributed positively on development of non basis sector of commodity, while year of 2010 was 0.77 and year of 2011 was 0.833. Value of BSR < 1 was indicating negative contribution of commodity sector basis on non basis sector, especially in South Halmahera regency. Based on analysis results, the average income of each respondent for tomato was IDR 33,843,720.-; red pepper was IDR 10,782,350.- ; lanseh fruit was IDR 43,074,200.- and durian fruit was IDR 75,838,040.-. Development strategies based on SWOT analysis were (1) increase of product and agricultural commodity quality, (2) Focused and clearly political will of government, (3) Increase of farmer resource, (4) Self seedling development training, (5) Government regulation on prohibiting exploration of the agricultural potential areas, (6) Increasing activity of the industrial and trade office on easily market information, (7) Effective utilization of productive areas, (8) Collaboration between government and private entrepreneurship, (9) Adoption of modern agricultural technology, (10) Optimizing of the function of economical institution (corporation institution) and banking institution, and (11) Optimizing the role of field agricultural extension. Therefore, based on this research, it can be concluded that South Halmahera regency had high potential of superior commodity of the horticulture sub sector that can be developed due to higher supporting of potential location areas. Key words: Superior commodity, horticulture sub sector, SWOT analysis, South Halmahera regency.

Endogenous ethylene regulates accumulation of α- and β-carotene in the pulp of harvested durian fruit

Durian (Durio zibethinus Murr.) cv. Chanee fruits were harvested at commercial maturity and stored at 25°C for 9 days. Respiration rates and ethylene production increased during storage, while pulp firmness decreased. The concentrations of the two main pulp carotenoids (α- carotene and β-carotene) increased by more than 30% during storage. The minor carotenoids zeaxanthin also increased, while an increase in lutein was not statistically different from controls. Treatment at 25°C with 500μLL−1 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) for 12h delayed the increase in respiration rate and in ethylene production. It also resulted in a later decrease in pulp firmness. 1-MCP largely prevented the increase in pulp carotenoid concentrations. Ethephon treatment (brushing the stem cut surface) increased the measured ethylene and slightly hastened the decrease in pulp firmness, but did not measurably affect the respiration and carotenoid concentrations. It is concluded that the postharvest increase in pulp α-carotene and β-carotene concentrations is an integral part of pulp ripening in this cultivar.

Nanocellulose-Zeolite Composite Films for Odor Elimination.

Free standing and strong odor-removing composite films of cellulose nanofibrils (CNF) with a high content of nanoporous zeolite adsorbents have been colloidally processed. Thermogravimetric desorption analysis (TGA) and infrared spectroscopy combined with computational simulations showed that commercially available silicalite-1 and ZSM-5 have a high affinity and uptake of volatile odors like ethanethiol and propanethiol, also in the presence of water. The simulations showed that propanethiol has a higher affinity, up to 16%, to the two zeolites compared with ethanethiol. Highly flexible and strong free-standing zeolite-CNF films with an adsorbent loading of 89 w/w% have been produced by Ca-induced gelation and vacuum filtration. The CNF-network controls the strength of the composite films and 100 μm thick zeolite-CNF films with a CNF content of less than 10 vol % displayed a tensile strength approaching 10 MPa. Headspace solid phase microextraction (SPME) coupled to gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC/MS) analysis showed that the CNF-zeolite films can eliminate the volatile thiol-based odors to concentrations below the detection ability of the human olfactory system. Odor removing zeolite-cellulose nanofibril films could enable improved transport and storage of fruits and vegetables rich in odors, for example, onion and the tasty but foul-smelling South-East Asian Durian fruit.

Expression of expansin genes in the pulp and the dehiscence zone of ripening durian (Durio zibethinus) fruit

Durian (Durio zibethinus) fruit was harvested at the commercially mature stage and stored at 25°C. Durian fruit have 3–5 longitudinal dehiscence zones (DZs) in the peel, which are up to 40cm long and 2cm thick in large fruit. Dehiscence started a week after harvest, was hastened by exogenous ethylene, and delayed by 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP), showing that it is regulated by endogenous ethylene. Three genes encoding α-expansins (DzEXP1-3) were isolated. In the expression of these genes increased, prior to dehiscence. Pulp firmness decreased during storage. The decrease was hastened by ethylene and delayed by 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP). Exogenous ethylene promoted gene expression of DzEXP1 both in the DZs and in the pulp. It had a smaller effect on DzEXP2 in the zones and pulp, but did not affect DzEXP3 expression. 1-MCP inhibited the expression of DzEXP1 and, somewhat less, of DzEXP2, but did not affect DzEXP3 expression, both in DZs and pulp. It is concluded that the close relationship between expression of DzEXP1 and DzEXP2 and both dehiscence and fruit softening suggests that these genes are involved in both processes.

Carotenoids in durian fruit pulp during growth and postharvest ripening

Durian (Durio zibethinus) cvs. Chanee and Monthong fruit were severed from the tree during 14day intervals, from 10weeks after anthesis until commercial maturity. We determined the pulp (i.e. aril; fruit flesh) carotenoid composition, together with pulp firmness, color and total soluble solids (TSS) and postharvest quality. In ripe cv. Chanee fruit the main carotenoids were β-carotene (about 80%), and α-carotene (20%), with minor levels of lutein and zeaxanthin. In ripe fruit total carotenoid concentration (expressed per gram FW) was about 9-fold higher in cv. Chanee than in cv. Monthong. Large differences between the cultivars were also found in β-carotene levels (about 11 times more in cv. Chanee), and even larger ones in those of α-carotene. Differences in lutein and zeaxanthin concentrations were small. Pulp color was deeper yellow in cv. Chanee than in cv. Monthong, which was correlated with α-carotene and β-carotene concentrations. Durian contains a high fat percentage, which is conducive to carotenoid uptake. It is concluded that it is advisable to consume cv. Chanee rather than cv. Monthong if intake of carotenoids is considered important.

HUBUNGAN GAYA HIDUP DENGAN KEJADIAN HIPERTENSI DI POLI KLINIK PENYAKIT DALAM RUMAH SAKIT ACHMAD MOCHTAR BUKITTINGGI TAHUN 2015

Hypertension or high blood pressure is an abnormal increase in blood pressure in the arteries continuously over a period. several risk factors that can take into severe hypertension, among other things: stress, obesity, food containing salt, high cholesterol, preserved foods, meat, fruit durian, cigarettes, coffee, family history or genetic and age. Most of it is an indicator of an unhealthy lifestyle. Lifestyle is a pattern of life which describes the overall self interacts with its environment. The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between lifestyle with hypertension. The sampling technique accidental sampling as many as 95 respondents. The independent variable in this study is a lifestyle, while the dependent variable was the incidence hipertensi Hasil univariate analysis obtained more than half of respondents (51.6%) who have a healthy lifestyle and more than half of respondents (52.6%) who had hypertension. Bivariate analysis results There is significant correlation between lifestyle with hypertension (p = 0.003 and OR = 3.937). So lifestyle is associated with the incidence of hypertension. For it is expected to further research to examine the other variables.

Isolation and Molecular Identification of Endophytic Bacteria from Durian Arillus (Durio zibethinus Murr.) var. Matahari

Endophytes are plant-associated microorganisms that able to form colonies in internal tissue and considered as an important component of biodiversity. However, information about the existence of naturally fruits-associated endophytic bacteria at different life-history stages of hosts is very limited. Durian ( Durio zibethinus Murr.) is an exotic tropical fruits with a high economical value, but the occurrence and functional role of associated endophytes remains unexplored. A total of sixteen endophytic bacterial isolates were identified by 16S rRNA sequence analysis from ripe and unripe stages of Durian fruits var. Matahari. These isolates belonged to the genus Staphylococcus, Bacillus , Enterobacter , Moraxella , Gordonia , Salmonella , Rhizobium , Brachybacterium , Kocuria , and Klebsiella . This is the first report of an endophytic bacterial spesies residing in Durian arillus. This research also indicated potency of culturable endophytes from Durian fruits in plant growth promotion.

Lactobacillus salivarius Fermentation Reduced Glucosinolate and Fibre in Canola Meal

<p>Local traditional fermented foods consisting of seven samples of <em>tempoyak</em> (made from fresh durian fruit), six samples of <em>budu</em> (made from boiled fish), four samples of <em>tempeh</em> (made from boiled soybean), two samples of vegetable pickle (made from raw cabbage) and one sample of <em>tapai</em> (made from cooked glutinous rice), were used as samples for the isolation of lactic acid bacteria (LAB). A number of samples for different fermented foods like <em>tempoyak</em>,<em> budu</em> and vegetable pickle were screened as they were fermented by microorganisms naturally present in the food. One hundred isolates were obtained and by sequential screening for catalase activity and Gram-staining, 20 isolates were determined to be <em>Lactobacillus</em>. Ten isolates with the highest enzymatic activities were selected based on the biochemical reactions of the API ZYM kit. Canola meal (CM) was treated with the ten <em>Lactobacillus </em>isolates in solid state fermentation for 30 days. The most efficient LAB isolate was identified as <em>lactobacillus</em> <em>salivarius</em> and significantly reduced the total glucosinolate and crude fibre content of CM by 38% and 16%, respectively.</p>