Durable Bricks Research Articles

Experimental Study of Plastic Bricks Made from Waste Plastics

This study describes the use of municipal plastic waste (MPW) in the construction industry. Plastic is a nonbiodegradable material that takes thousands of years to decompose and causes soil and water pollution. The amount of plastic waste in municipal solid waste (MSW) is increasing rapidly. Usage is estimated to double every decade. Plastic consumption is high and one of the largest plastic wastes is polyethylene (PE). The use of earth-derived clay materials has caused resource depletion and one of these efforts is the efficient use of plastic waste and laterite quarry waste, along with small amounts of asphalt, to meet the growing demand for traditional building materials, which are less absorbent than laterite bricks. The challenge is to develop alternative building materials, such as brick, that have little but sufficient strength. The use of MPW as a building material, especially in brick production, is one of the promising steps towards sustainable resource and waste management. Plastic waste can partially or completely replace one or more raw materials in brick production. Further research based on recent research and a better understanding of the use of waste plastics in bricks is needed to produce high-quality and durable bricks and to achieve an optimal balance in all aspects, especially in terms of cost and functionality.

Toward sustainable lightweight durable bricks using alkali-activated hemp-based materials

This paper presents high-strength, lightweight alkali-activated concrete using hemp powder and coarse hemp shiv. A parametric study determined the impacts of different alkali activator and hemp shiv contents on mechanical, durability, and sustainability properties. Reducing the alkali-activator content to 0.86 and 0.37 % by volume for sodium silicate and sodium hydroxide improved the mechanical and durability properties of the mixture. Mixtures with the least alkali activator content, 0.86 % and 0.37 %, had a density of 1.2 g/cm3 and compressive strength of 17 MPa. Reducing the alkali-activator content increased the carbon dioxide sequestration capacity to 180 kgCO2eq/m3 for the developed alkali-activated concrete.

Roman brick production technologies in Padua (Northern Italy) along the Late Antiquity and Medieval Times: Durable bricks on high humid environs

Production technologies of Roman to Medieval times bricks on the city of Padua were addressed by means of a multi-analytical approach, consisting in Spectrophotometry, X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF), Powder X-Ray Diffraction (PXRD), Polarized Optical Microscopy (POM) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM-EDS). The Early-Christian (5-6th centuries) and Romanesque (12-13th centuries) areas of the Basilica of Saint Justine of Padua (5/6-16th centuries), and the remains of the Roman necropolis (1-3/4th centuries) still preserved under the basilica, were selected to collect the bricks in order to define possible differences between the materials used for the various building phases. The walls are mainly shaped by yellow (with pale and dark hue) and beige colored bricks with an overall good conservation state. The ceramic bodies of this type of bricks showed the development of high-temperature phases but a low sintering degree was achieved. Moreover, secondary phases such as zeolites and calcite were formed, within almost the pale-yellow bodies and intensively precipitated through the groundmass of the beige bricks, respectively. Mg-rich calcareous clays and chloritic-illitic clays were used, firing temperatures of or over 900°C were reached and more porous ceramic bodies were produced when higher was the carbonate content on the raw clays. A lesser carbonate content of the base clays and/or the decrease in the firing temperatures were the main technological modifications progressively accomplished, leading to color changes on the ceramic bodies from yellow to beige hue. The Roman production technologies might be largely inherited by the brick makers during the Late Antiquity and Medieval times in the city and the reuse of more ancient bricks during the Medieval Times was confirmed. Such reuse operations have allowed to observe that under high humid conditions the yellow hue bricks have been rather good preserved, while when exposed to insolation and fluctuations of the environmental conditions a significant granular disaggregation -with the concomitance darkening of the color pastes- is developed. The color of bricks may entail an identifier of a specific construction period of the city and durable bricks from local clays, especially suitable for high humidity areas and that may preserve the aesthetical values of the city of Padua, may be currently produced.

Study of the Effects of Waste Glass Additives on the Properties and Compliance level of Fired Ceramic Masonry Bricks

The current study reports the effects of waste glass additives on the properties and compliance level of fired ceramic masonry bricks. In the course of producing durable bricks for masonry, waste glass powder sieved to 150 μm was added to clay, mixed with water and fired to 1000°C. The effects of the waste glass addition were investigated by subjecting 242 ceramic bricks produced to physical, mechanical, and thermal tests. Their morphological behaviour was thereafter examined. From the results obtained, the physical and mechanical properties were improved as waste glass content increased in the samples. Values of properties obtained were compared with existing standard values for bricks and it was observed that compliance level at 0% waste glass was 63%, at 10% waste glass addition, it was 75% and at 15% to 40% waste glass addition, compliance was 100%. Therefore, it was concluded that waste glass addition to bricks improved the properties of bricks for construction purpose.

Eco-friendly dredged material-cement bricks

The increasing concerns about natural-resource depletion and environmental degradation have resulted in developing “green” products and switching to sustainable manufacturing processes. The conventional fired clay bricks and concrete masonry still play vital roles in the construction industry. However, the use of virgin materials and carbon emissions associated with their production have raised questions about their environmental sustainability. This study investigates the potential of using dredged material from a confined disposal facility (CDF) in Cleveland, Ohio, to fabricate eco-friendly bricks. The brick samples were made using mixtures of sand, sieved from the dredged material, with 8%, 10%, and 12%, by weight, of Type I/II cement, and compacting the samples using a pressure of 2 MPa or 4 MPa. The compressive strength, water absorption, and freeze–thaw resistance of the bricks were evaluated in the laboratory per American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) method C67. The compressive strength of the bricks ranged from 10.3 MPa to 17.2 MPa, whereas absorption ranged from 13% to 18%. The 50-cycle freeze–thaw (F-T) weight loss ranged from 0.1% to 0.4%, demonstrating that durable bricks, meeting the ASTM specifications (0.5% maximum F-T weight loss after 50 cycles), could be produced using the dredged material. Furthermore, a life cycle inventory of dredged material–cement brick (DM-CB) was established to compare its environmental impacts with conventional fired clay brick, concrete masonry units, and compressed stabilized brick. The DM-CB was observed to have the least embodied energy of 1.49 MJ/kg and an embodied greenhouse gas emission of 0.162 kg CO2e/kg, making it the eco-friendliest and environmentally sustainable product compared to conventional bricks.

Design of eco-efficient housing with sustainable alkali-activated bricks

Increasing construction demand in urban cities due to haphazard growth in population has led to overconsumption of construction materials, which adversely affects the environment and society. Responsible production and consumption of building materials is one of the necessary steps towards achieving the sustainability goal. In this study, sustainable alkali-activated bricks using industrial wastes (co-fired blended ash and stone dust) were developed and tested for physico-mechanical, thermal and durability related properties. The experimental investigation resulted in high strength, low thermal conductivity and durable bricks, thus proposed for its utilization in load bearing building structure. A study was carried out to compare the performance of existing case of residential building (framed structure with conventional fly ash masonry) and proposed sustainable solution of load bearing structure with developed alkali-activated bricks in terms of cost and energy consumption. Proposed strategy resulted in eco-efficient construction that reduced the cost, embodied energy and operational energy by about 7%, 22% and 13% respectively, as against conventional practice.

Use of ceramic waste powder for manufacturing durable and eco-friendly bricks

In present work, Ceramic Wastes Powder (CWP) is recycled as partial replacement of fresh clay in bricks. The proportions of replacement were fixed as 4, 8, 12, and 16% by mass of clay. Total 250 specimens were manufactured, having 50 bricks of each category. Physical, chemical and mechanical characteristics were determined and compared with those of control specimens. The analyzed characteristics included unit weight, efflorescence, apparent porosity, water absorption, pore size distribution, chemical composition, crystalline phases, micro-structure, compressive & flexural strengths, resistance towards freezing & thawing and the sulfate attack resistance. It was concluded that the bricks incorporating CWP exhibit improved mechanical strength, higher resistance to efflorescence, freeze/thaw and sulfate attack, lower porosity, and dense micro-structure. The ultrasonic pulse velocity test also confirms that the inclusion of CWP enhances the brick quality. In addition, the incorporation of CWP increases the unit weight, making bricks suitable for heavy duty and commercial structures. The study reveals that highly durable bricks can be manufactured using CWP.

Sodium silicate activated clay brick

The paper discusses the addition of sodium hydroxide to readily available natural materials in Senegal, in order to produce stronger and more durable bricks. The case study involves the Tchieky clays which were mixed with varying amounts of NaOH and heated at temperatures of 40, 80 and 120°C for periods of up to 60 days. The caustic solution could be sodium hydroxide mixed with sodium silicate and water/seawater. In general the maximum strength was reached after 28 days for samples mixed with 8 M NaOH at 40°C. The bricks produced were shown to be durable and relatively inexpensive. The process does not generate pollutants and can use by-products, assisting with environmental problems.

Chemical-mineralogical characterization of historical bricks from Ferrara: an integrated bulk and micro-analytical approach

Abstract In this paper we present bulk X-ray fluorescence-X-ray diffraction (XRF/XRD) and microanalytical scanning electron microscope-electron microprobe analysis (SEM-EMPA) data on historical bricks from Medieval or Renaissance buildings of Ferrara (NE Italy) to provide insights into the nature and provenance of the raw material as well as clues on the sintering techniques. Chemical data indicate that the starting materials were obtained by mixing high Cr-Ni clay and subordinate sand (both quarried from the P o river alluvial deposits) with the possible introduction of a Na-rich flux component. Thin-section observation, XRD and micro-analytical data indicate the presence of key accessory phases such as pyroxene, amphibole, epidote and rare olivine in the pre-fired mineral assemblage, confirming the utilization of the Po river sediments. Recognition of neo-formation firing phases (e.g. melilite, wollastonite), together with composition of micas, amphiboles and interstitial glasses, indicate kiln temperatures between c. 800 and 1000 °C. This provides guidelines for making new compatible and durable bricks to be utilized for restoration, and contributes to the preservation of historical masonry.

Durability of bricks used in the conservation of historic buildings — influence of composition and microstructure

Differences in mineralogical and textural evolution during firing of calcareous and non-calcareous bricks are studied and correlated with their behaviour in hygric and weathering tests. Results reveal significant differences in the evolution of vitrification degree, porosity and pore size distribution. Such evolution depends mostly on raw clay composition and firing temperatures. A higher degree of vitrification and of compressive strength is displayed by calcareous rather than non-calcareous bricks at lower firing temperatures of between 700 and 900 °C. However, their resistance to salt crystallisation and freezing is not notably improved because of unfavourable pore size distribution and crack development. The latter are caused by the transformation of calcite into calcium oxide at around 800 °C, which reacts readily with moisture to form calcium hydroxide, thus leading to a volume increase (lime blowing). This problem can be avoided by closely controlling grain size and content of carbonates in the raw clays. High firing temperatures of 1100 °C in the case of calcareous clay and 1000 °C in the case of non-calcareous clay are required to produce durable bricks that remain unaltered upon weathering. The improved durability appears to be due to a more favourable pore size distribution and a reduction in porosity. Results from textural and hygric studies of the brick samples indicate that these parameters can to a significant extent be controlled by varying raw clay composition and firing temperature, thus making it possible to fabricate replacement bricks for particular conservation purposes. This paper addresses limitations regarding the interpretation of test results, as well as the lack of a systematic application of existing standards for evaluating the state of conservation of historic bricks and for establishing specifications for replacement bricks.

Predicting the Durability of Paving Bricks

Abstract The pore size distributions of approximately 110 bricks removed from existing pavements were measured using mercury intrusion. These distributions were used to calculate a Durability Factor using the method of Maage. This Durability Factor was then correlated with the observed durability performance of the pavements. It was found that all bricks with a Durability Factor greater than 90 exhibited no freeze/thaw durability problems. Further, with very few exceptions, all bricks with a Durability Factor less than 90 were suffering freeze/thaw failures. This procedure is both more accurate and faster for selecting potentially durable bricks than the current use of absorption measurements.

Predicting the Durability of Bricks

Abstract The pore size distributions of approximately 80 bricks removed from walls of existing buildings were measured using mercury intrusion. These distributions were used to calculate a Durability Factor using the method of Maage. This Durability Factor was then correlated with the observed performance of the bricks on the buildings. It was found that all bricks with a Durability Factor greater than 70 exhibited no freeze/thaw durability problems. Further, with very few exceptions, all bricks with a Durability Factor less than 70 were suffering freeze/thaw failures. This technique is more accurate and faster for selecting potentially durable bricks than the current use of absorption measurements.

Lateritic soil—cement bricks for rural housing

The need to utilise local materials for the building industry in developing countries cannot be over-emphasised. Lateritic soils are abundantly available in the tropics and can be used for the manufacture of durable bricks. This paper reports on improvement of the strength of these bricks by addition of cement. Results show that to achieve optimal strength conditions, the soil-cement bricks require much less hard firing than plain bricks. Depending on the firing temperature and amount of cement used, the addition of cement could result in brick strengths of up to four times those with no cement added at the same temperature and at least two and a half times the maximum strength with plain bricks at any firing temperature.