Dual-process Hypothesis Research Articles

Age-Related Differences in the Impact of Prior Knowledge on Recognition Performance: A Face Recognition Study

ABSTRACTBackground/Study context: The dual-process hypothesis of memory and aging (DPHMA) postulates a decline of recollection with no decline in recognition. While the age-related recollection deficit is well-documented, any age-changes in the familiarity process remain unclear. Some studies have shown that familiar and meaningful material can enhance the recognition performance of older adults. The goal of the present study was to explore the impact of familiar material on age-related recognition-memory decline, using a dual-process approach.Methods: One hundred participants (50 young adults and 50 older adults) performed two recognition tasks using an unfamiliar and a famous face recognition task. A receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis was used to examine the memory processes underlying recognition memory.Results: The older adults showed lower performance on recognition accuracy and false alarms rate, only in the unfamiliar-face recognition task. A DPHMA-like pattern on unfamiliar-face recognition task was obtained. Prior knowledge in the famous-face recognition task improved recollection for older adults and no age-related deficit was found.Conclusion: The present study suggests that episodic memory deficits in healthy aging are primarily driven by a recollection deficit while familiarity is relatively well spared. However, this age-related recollection deficit could be alleviated using knowledge-based material.

Thinking Fast Increases Framing Effects in Risky Decision Making

Every day, people face snap decisions when time is a limiting factor. In addition, the way a problem is presented can influence people’s choices, which creates what are known as framing effects. In this research, we explored how time pressure interacts with framing effects in risky decision making. Specifically, does time pressure strengthen or weaken framing effects? On one hand, research has suggested that framing effects evolve through the deliberation process, growing larger with time. On the other hand, dual-process theory attributes framing effects to an intuitive, emotional system that responds automatically to stimuli. In our experiments, participants made decisions about gambles framed in terms of either gains or losses, and time pressure was manipulated across blocks. Results showed increased framing effects under time pressure in both hypothetical and incentivized choices, which supports the dual-process hypothesis that these effects arise from a fast, intuitive system.

Skilful reflection as a master virtue

This paper advances the claim that skilful reflection is a master virtue in that skilful reflection shapes and corrects the other epistemic and intellectual virtues. We make the case that skilful reflection does this with both competence-based epistemic virtues and character-based intellectual virtues. In making the case that skilful reflection is a master virtue, we identify the roots of ideas central to our thesis in Confucian philosophy. In particular, we discuss the Confucian conception of reflection, as well as different levels of epistemic virtue. Next we set out the Dual Process Hypothesis of Reflection, which provides an explanation of the workings of reflection in relation to Type 1 and Type 2 cognitive processes. In particular, we flag how repetition of Type 2 processes may eventually shape Type 1 processes and produce what we call downstream reflection. We distinguish competence-based epistemic virtues from character-based intellectual virtues. We also explain how our metacognition account of reflection, drawing on a Confucian conception of reflection and the Dual Process Hypothesis of Reflection, explains skilful reflection as a master virtue. Finally we outline an application of our metacognition account of reflection to a current debate in epistemology.

Protection motivation theory and cigarette smoking among vocational high school students in China: a cusp catastrophe modeling analysis.

BackgroundTobacco use is one of the greatest public health problems worldwide and the hazards of cigarette smoking to public health call for better recognition of cigarette smoking behaviors to guide evidence-based policy. Protection motivation theory (PMT) provides a conceptual framework to investigate tobacco use. Evidence from diverse sources implies that the dynamics of smoking behavior may be quantum in nature, consisting of an intuition and an analytical process, challenging the traditional linear continuous analytical approach. In this study, we used cusp catastrophe, a nonlinear analytical approach to test the dual-process hypothesis of cigarette smoking.MethodsData were collected from a random sample of vocational high school students in China (n = 528). The multivariate stochastic cusp modeling was used and executed with the Cusp Package in R. The PMT-based Threat Appraisal and Coping Appraisal were used as the two control variables and the frequency of cigarette smoking (daily, weekly, occasional, and never) in the past month was used as the outcome variable.ResultsConsistent with PMT, the Threat Appraisal (asymmetry, α1 = 0.1987, p < 0.001) and Coping Appraisal (bifurcation, β2 = 0.1760, p < 0.05) significantly predicted the smoking behavior after controlling for covariates. Furthermore, the cusp model performed better than the alternative linear and logistic regression models with regard to higher R 2 (0.82 for cusp, but 0.21 for linear and 0.25 for logistic) and smaller AIC and BIC.ConclusionStudy findings support the conclusion that cigarette smoking in adolescents is a quantum process and PMT is relevant to guide studies to understand smoking behavior for smoking prevention and cessation.

Effects of writing beliefs and planning on writing performance

White and Bruning (2005) distinguished two sets of writing beliefs: transactional and transmissional beliefs. In this paper we analyse their beliefs scale and suggest two hypotheses about how such beliefs relate to writing performance. The single-process hypothesis treats the beliefs as different amounts of engagement, whereas the dual-process hypothesis claims that the beliefs represent different types of engagement. We then describe the results of an experiment with 84 university students as participants that assessed the relationship between writing beliefs, different forms of pre-planning and different aspects of writing performance. Our results support the dual-process hypothesis, and suggest that transactional beliefs are about the preference for a top-down strategy or a bottom-up strategy, while transmissional beliefs are about the content that is written about. These beliefs interact in their effects on text quality, the amount and type of revision carried out, and the extent to which writers develop their understanding. They also moderate the effectiveness of outlining as a strategy.

Differential Effects of Non-REM and REM Sleep on Memory Consolidation?

Sleep benefits memory consolidation. Previous theoretical accounts have proposed a differential role of slow-wave sleep (SWS), rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep, and stage N2 sleep for different types of memories. For example the dual process hypothesis proposes that SWS is beneficial for declarative memories, whereas REM sleep is important for consolidation of non-declarative, procedural and emotional memories. In fact, numerous recent studies do provide further support for the crucial role of SWS (or non-REM sleep) in declarative memory consolidation. However, recent evidence for the benefit of REM sleep for non-declarative memories is rather scarce. In contrast, several recent studies have related consolidation of procedural memories (and some also emotional memories) to SWS (or non-REM sleep)-dependent consolidation processes. We will review this recent evidence, and propose future research questions to advance our understanding of the role of different sleep stages for memory consolidation.

Sleep Microstructure and Memory Function

Several studies investigated the effect of sleep on memory. In humans, arguably the first experimental description of a ben-eficial role of sleep for memory stabiliza-tion was provided in 1924 (1), indicating a protective benefit of sleep in prevent-ing the normal decay-curve of forgetting that develops across time spent awake. Specific stages of sleep appear to be criti-cal for memory consolidation. Memory is commonly divided into a declarative and a non-declarative memory system (2). Declarative memory is defined by memo-ries accessible to conscious recollection, i.e., memories for events in a spatio-tem-poral context (episodic memory) and fact-based information (semantic memory). Procedural memory for skills is the type of non-declarative memory most thoroughly studied with regard to the effects of sleep. Sleep is characterized by the cyclic occur-rence of REM and NREM sleep comprising SWS (sleep stages 3 and 4) and lighter sleep stages 1 and 2. Two hypotheses were pro-posed regarding sleep stages and memory consolidation (3). The dual process the-ory assumes that the specific sleep stages support consolidation of different types of memories. SWS supports declarative memory consolidation whereas REM sleep does so for procedural memories ( 4). The sequential hypothesis, on the other hand, proposes that sleep benefits memory opti-mally through the cyclic succession of both SWS and REM sleep. The original version of this hypothesis assumed that SWS func-tions to weaken non-adaptive memory traces whereas REM sleep re-stores the remaining traces (5). The dual process hypothesis received support mainly based on the early late sleep comparison, i.e., an approach comparing effects of retention intervals covering the first (SWS-rich) or the second (REM sleep-rich) half of nocturnal sleep. SWS-rich early sleep con-sistently found to support consolidation of hippocampus-dependent declarative memories, whereas REM sleep benefited non-declarative types of memory like priming, and memories for visuo-motor skills ( 6, 7). However, this dichotomy does not fit all results. Several non-declarative tasks, like visual texture discrimination, are also supported by SWS whereas REM sleep in some instances seems to benefit aspects of declarative memory (8).More recently, Genzel and colleagues (9) tried to clarify the link between spe-cific sleep stages and different types of memory consolidation by suppressing sleep stages. They deprived subjects once each of REM sleep and SWS, and once let them sleep undisturbed through the night. After each night, the authors tested declarative and procedural memory con-solidation. Although REM sleep and SWS awakenings led to a significant reduction of the respective sleep stages, memory con-solidation remained unaffected. According to the authors, there are two possible explanations for REM deprivation and SWS deprivation not influencing sleep-dependent consolidation of motor tasks: (1) the diminished amount of REM sleep in the REM deprivation condition was still sufficient for sleep-dependent memory consolidation or (2) the memory con-solidation is dependent on stage 2 sleep. Another explanation of the results is that sleep-associated processes contributing to memory consolidation requires analyses of polysomnographic phenomena, like sleep spindles and slow-wave activity (SWA). This aspect is very important also for the implications for the cognitive decline by increasing age (10, 11). Other factors that change with age, such as hormones and neurotransmitters, or hypoxia related to sleep-disordered breathing (12, 13), may also play an important role.

How do we process novel conceptual combinations in context?

Most theories of how people interpret novel noun-noun combinations (e.g., ghost forest) do not sufficiently address the role of context, which is surprising given that novel combinations are generally encountered in discourse contexts. We evaluated three hypotheses for the role of context in interpretation. The generation hypothesis states that interpretation is based on sense generation both in and out of context. The anaphor resolution hypothesis states that interpretation initially involves identifying a referent from the prior discourse context, and meaning generation occurs only if anaphoric processing fails. The dual-process hypothesis states that sense generation and anaphor resolution operate in parallel, and both may influence initial interpretation. In two experiments, we examined reading times on novel combinations when the dominant meaning (most likely interpretation) or subordinate meaning (infrequent interpretation) preceded or followed the combination in text. Results supported the dual-process hypothesis.

Still Missing Some Significant Ingredients

Still Missing Some Significant Ingredients

Coordination between postural and movement controls: effect of changes in body mass distribution on postural and focal component characteristics

Whole-body reaching movements are accomplished through a combination of anticipatory postural adjustments (APAs) and focal movements. Two different modes of central organization is usually proposed for this coordination: first, a single-process control, where the APAs and the focal movements would share a common command; second, where the APAs and the focal movements would be independently controlled through parallel commands (dual-process control). Here, we investigated which one of these modes of control could better explain the coordination between the trunk and the upper limb for standing subjects reaching for a target located beyond arm's length. This was done evaluating the effect of changing the APAs settings on the arm movement. The APAs modification was achieved by shifting the subject's centre of mass prior to the focal movement onset; this was done by adding an asymmetric load on either side of the head (a control condition with the load fixed centrally at the top of the head was also performed). As it changed the body mass distribution, the muscular torques and the orientation of the head inertia tensor, it is assumed that the addition of the asymmetric load led to a change in the APAs. Analyses indeed showed that both the initial head and trunk displacement towards the supporting side (during the unloading of the moving leg) were smaller when the load was fixed on the side of the supporting leg than when it was fixed on the side of the moving leg. However, changing the initial conditions, and therefore the APAs settings, had no significant effect on the path and kinematics of the focal hand movement. Therefore, subjects cancelled out the effect of the trunk motion on the hand-in-space motion through compensatory arm movements. These results support the dual-process control hypothesis for the postural and the focal components.

Differential effects of list strength on recollection and familiarity.

Numerous studies have found a null list strength effect (LSE) for recognition sensitivity: Strengthening memory traces associated with some studied items does not impair recognition of nonstrengthened studied items. In Experiment 1, the author found a LSE using receiver operating characteristic-based measures of recognition sensitivity. To account for the discrepancy between this and prior research, the author (a) argues that a LSE occurs for recollection but not for discrimination based on familiarity, and (b) presents self-report data consistent with this hypothesis. Experiment 2 tested the dual-process hypothesis more directly, using switched-plurality (SP) lures to isolate the contribution of recollection. There was a significant LSE for comparisons involving SP lures; the LSE for discrimination of studied items and nominally unrelated lures (which can be supported by familiarity) was not significant.

Anticipatory postural adjustments under simple and choice reaction time conditions

Two different schemes of the central organization of anticipatory postural adjustments (APAs) have been proposed: one of them assumes that postural and focal components of an action are results of a single control process (single-process hypothesis) while the other one suggests that these two components result from two relatively independent control processes (dual-process hypothesis). To distinguish between the two hypotheses, we investigated changes in the relative timing of the postural and focal components under self-paced, simple reaction time (SRT) and choice reaction conditions (CRT). Standing subjects performed one of four small arm movements resulting in a standard postural perturbation (dropping a load). APAs were quantified as changes in the background muscle activity as well as shifts of the center of pressure. APAs occurred at a larger delay prior to the focal movement under the self-paced condition than under the SRT condition. Under the CRT condition, actual RTs were longer than under SRT, but APAs were more similar to those under self-paced conditions. A negative correlation between the reaction time and APA onset was found. The findings demonstrate that the focal and APA components of an action can be decoupled, thus supporting the dual-process hypothesis. Changes in APAs with action suggest a possibility of modifications of a function that transforms two parallel control signals into a single command to the focal and postural muscles, based on postural requirements and behavioral constraints.

Le modèle de Traitement Heuristique Systématique de l'information : motivations multiples et régulation du jugement en cognition sociale

Summary : The Heuristic Systematic Model : Multiple motives and regulation of judgment in social cognition. Recent advances in the Heuristic Systematic Model (Chaiken, Giner-Sorolla and Chen, 1996 ; Chaiken, Liberman and Eagly, 1989) are investigated as the basis of a general model of social cognition. The three main components of the model are discussed : dual processing, regulation of quality and quantity of processing, and functional typology of motivations. We focus both on goal-based regulation (exactitude, defense, and impression motivation) and metacognitive assessment (perceived cognitive effort and confidence in judgment). The dual-process hypothesis and the distinction between heuristic eues and arguments are discussed in terms oftext comprehension processes and strategie components of decision and communication. Suggestions for development of the model are presented. Key words : heuristic, social cognition, persuasion, motivation, goal, decision making.

Hungarian cross-modal priming and treatment of nonsense words supports the dual-process hypothesis

Hungarian data provide support for differences in processing regular and irregular morphologies. Stronger priming was observed with “regular” stem types compared to “irregular” ones. Use of nonwords showed a reliance on the grammatical structure of the nonword: Analogical extension of “irregulars” can be observed only in “root” contexts; in other contexts all types were largely overregularized.

Liking persons versus liking groups: a dual-process hypothesis

Most research on liking of persons and groups has been conducted within separate paradigms, but the implicit assumption has been that the same processes govern judgments of liking or disliking regardless of the nature of the target. Departing from this assumption, we suggest a dual-process hypothesis according to which people base their liking of a target person primarily on the desirability of the person's characteristics, whereas they base their liking of a group primarily on the degree of similarity between the group and themselves. To test this hypothesis, participants were presented with either positively or negatively valenced sketches that either described an individual person or a group of people. Path analyses revealed that liking of a person was best predicted by desirability ratings, whereas liking of a group was best predicted by similarity ratings. Implications of these findings for stereotype maintenance are discussed.

Serial comparison processes and sex differences in clerical speed

Past research on sex differences in speeded matching tests and recent theory on same-different judgements led to the prediction that sex differences in such judgements would be observed with simultaneous but not sequential stimulus presentation. In Experiment 1, reliable differences between male and female college students ( n = 52) were found when the task involved comparisons between simultaneously presented digit sets. Female subjects were faster than male subjects, p<.01. In Experiment 2 ( n = 60), when the digit sets were sequentially presented, such sex differences were not found. In Experiment 3 ( n = 70), digit sets identical to those in Experiment 2 were presented simultaneously. Sex differences again were found with the difference being clearest for “different” judgements, p<.05. The results were interpreted in terms of the dual-process hypothesis of same-different judgements with sex differences explained in terms of serial comparison processes rather than encoding/recognition processes.

Remembering left-right orientation of pictures.

In a study of recognition memory for pictures, we observed an asymmetry in classifying test items as "same" versus "different" in left-right orientation: Identical copies of previously viewed items were classified more accurately than left-right reversals of those items. Response bias could not explain this asymmetry, and, moreover, correct "same" and "different" classifications were independently manipulable: Whereas repetition of input pictures (one vs. two presentations) affected primarily correct "same" classifications, retention interval (3 hr vs. 1 week) affected primarily correct "different" classifications. In addition, repetition but not retention interval affected judgments that previously seen pictures (both identical and reversed) were "old". These and additional findings supported a dual-process hypothesis that links "same" classifications to high familiarity, and "different" classifications to conscious sampling of images of previously viewed pictures.

Measurement of Level I and Level II Mental Abilities as a Function of Test and Socioeconomic Status

In Jensen's dual process hypothesis of mental abilities Digit-Span and Progressive Matrices are seen as relatively pure measures of Level I and Level II, respectively, while paired-associate learning is seen as a less pure measure of Level I since it can vary with respect to loading on Level II ability. A sample of 227 10- to 11-yr.-old New Zealand children from varying socioeconomic groups completed Raven's Progressive Matrices, a digit-span test, and three paired-associate learning tests varying in abstractness. Analysis indicated no clear distinction between relatively pure and impure measures of Level I ability. Both Raven IQ and digit span were related to socioeconomic status, while paired-associate learning was not.

The Relationship of Level I and Level II Cognitive Processes to a Test of Associative Responding

This report relates Jensen's Level I associative ability to the phenomenon of associative responding as measured by Achenbach's Children's Associative Responding Test (CART), Using Digit Span and Raven I.Q. scores, four groups of 10-11-year-old children were formed, scoring high and/or low on Level I and Level 11 abilities respectively. It was hypothesized that among children scoring low on Level II ability, those with high Level I ability would show the strongest tendency towards associative responding on CART. Using two criteria of associative responding, analyses of variance failed to provide support for the hypothesis. Doubts are therefore raised regarding the general validity of Jensen's dual process hypothesis of cognitive functioning.