Dual Language Learners Research Articles

Long-term interrelations between socio-emotional and language competencies among preschool dual language learners in Germany.

Recent research has shown that socio-emotional and language competencies are positively associated with each other. However, few studies have explored these associations for the second language competencies (L2) of young dual language learners (DLLs). This longitudinal study investigated possible bidirectional associations between L2 language (expressive and receptive vocabulary) and socio-emotional competencies among preschool DLLs. The participants were 216 German DLLs (MT1 =52.67months; SD=9.54; 53% girls) who were recruited from 19 preschools. L2 skills were assessed at three time points over the course of one year using standardized tests for expressive and receptive vocabulary. Children's teachers rated their socio-emotional strengths and behaviour concerns. Cross-lagged panel analyses were used to examine the temporal interplay and longitudinal directionality of effects controlling for children's age, sex, type of language acquisition (sequential vs. simultaneous), and socio-economic status. Vocabulary skills and socio-emotional skills were positively correlated with one another at each time point, such that children with better language proficiency were rated by their teachers as children with higher levels of socio-emotional competence. Moreover, our results provided support for an effect of early socio-emotional skills (T1) on the relative increase in L2 vocabulary skills (T2 & T3), particularly for expressive vocabulary. However, our results did not demonstrate a statistically significant effect of better L2 language skills on the relative change in socio-emotional competencies. Our results suggest unidirectional longitudinal relations between the socio-emotional and L2 skills, signifying the role of socio-emotional skills for the vocabulary development of DLLs.

Executive control in dual language learning preschoolers: The association between Hot and cool executive control and science achievement

The number of Dual Language Learners (DLLs) in the United States is rapidly increasing, with over 25% of the preschoolers speaking a language other than English at home leading to a need to examine skills that contribute to their achievement. Executive Control (EC), or the ability to regulate attention, affect, and behavior effectively, is one skill that is particularly important for preschool children to develop. EC has been examined for monolingual children as a single construct, and as two related constructs, Cool Executive Control (CEC) and Hot Executive Control (HEC), and is associated with later academic outcomes. The purpose of this study was to extend the EC research to DLL preschoolers, determine if EC is a one or two factor construct in a sample of DLLs, and examine if the construct relates to DLL children’s science achievement. Structural equation modeling was used with a sample of 181 DLL children enrolled in Head Start. In line with previous research on monolingual Head Start children, EC emerged as two distinct latent factors, CEC and HEC. This study also examined the association between concurrent CEC, HEC, and science achievement. CEC was positively associated with DLLs’ science achievement, whereas HEC was not. These findings stress the importance of measuring the two dimensions of DLLs’ EC separately as they differentially relate to science achievement.

Development of the CECER-DLL child and family questionnaire: a new tool for documenting the language and literacy experiences of Latino/a dual language learners

ABSTRACT As the number of dual language learners (DLLs) increases globally, it is critical that well-developed questionnaires are available to researchers and educators that capture the characteristics and language experiences of preschool DLLs and their families. To fill this need, the Center for Early Care and Education Research-Dual Language Learners (CECER-DLL) Child and Family Questionnaire was developed. This article describes the four-step iterative process that was used to create the questionnaire, with a particular focus on the cognitive interviews that were conducted to establish the validity of the items. Findings from the cognitive interviewing process are presented which demonstrate the importance of this step when creating questionnaires that are valid for diverse populations. The development process of the CECER-DLL Child and Family Questionnaire, which is now available to the field, serves as an example of how to create well-designed questionnaires for other populations of DLLs in the United States and beyond.

Comparing Vocabulary Knowledge Conceptualizations Among Spanish-English Dual Language Learners in a New Destination State.

Purpose Despite the unprecedented growth of Spanish-English dual language learners (DLLs) in new destination states-where DLLs have not been historically served-empirical understanding of their language and literacy skills is scant. Drawing on scientific understandings of bilingual language acquisition, we compare monolingually scored and bilingually scored vocabulary knowledge of Spanish-English DLLs in a new destination state. Method Participants included second- and fourth-grade Spanish-English DLLs (N = 60) in a large urban school district in a new destination state. Students were considered DLLs if their parents indicated that Spanish was spoken at home to some extent. We utilized monolingually scored (Spanish-only and English-only) and bilingually scored (conceptual and total) conceptualizations of vocabulary knowledge. Descriptive analysis and Bonferroni-adjusted multiple comparisons were used to compare vocabulary knowledge by assessment approach (i.e., monolingual or bilingual), grade (i.e., second and fourth), and English proficiency status (i.e., limited English proficient and English proficient). Results Findings revealed that (a) DLLs, across grade levels and English proficiency status, demonstrated higher bilingual vocabulary scores compared to monolingual scores and stronger receptive vocabulary performance than expressive vocabulary performance and (b) DLLs' response patterns varied depending on the bilingual assessment approach used, with DLLs in limited English-proficient and English-proficient groups evidencing similar response patterns. Conclusions Bilingual scoring of vocabulary knowledge provides a more holistic understanding of elementary-aged DLLs' language skills. Results represent an important step toward shifting school-based assessment practices to incorporate comprehensive and equitable ways to conceptualize and measure elementary-aged Spanish-English DLLs' vocabulary knowledge.

Home literacy environment and existing knowledge mediate the link between socioeconomic status and language learning skills in dual language learners

Children learning two languages (Dual Language Learners; DLLs) represent a rapidly growing population in the United States. DLLs are disproportionately more likely to live in families of low socioeconomic status (SES), which places many of them at risk for poor dual-language outcomes. To date, most studies on SES and dual language development have relied on static measures of vocabulary and syntactic skills, without examining the language learning processes – children’s ability to acquire new language items. The current study used a newly developed language measure, the Quick Interactive Language Screener: English and Spanish (QUILS:ES), to assess 3- through 5-year-old Spanish-English DLLs’ language learning processes. We also examined the association between SES (as measured by primary caregivers’ education) and language learning processes, and further explored mechanisms underlying the association. DLLs from higher-SES families showed better language learning skills than those from lower-SES families. The size of the gap did not vary by child age. Home literacy environment (i.e., access to books, book-reading frequency) and children’s existing knowledge (i.e., vocabulary and syntactic knowledge) mediated the SES effect. Together, these findings highlight the need to better prepare DLLs from low-SES families for learning from a dual-language environment. Supporting DLLs’ language environment and knowledge through learning materials and language and literacy activities in both languages is crucial for ameliorating the SES gap in language learning processes.

Assessing preschool English learners’ receptive and expressive language ability to inform instruction

ABSTRACT This study explores how preschool educators could assess dual language learners’ (DLLs) English language abilities using formative instruments in school settings. It specifically examines (1) DLLs’ receptive and expressive language proficiencies measured using the instruments and (2) educators’ perceived usefulness of them for informing instruction. Participants were 139 preschool DLLs (M = 4;9) and 37 preschool educators from four countries (Argentina, Chile, China, and US). DLLs’ families completed a questionnaire on the child’s language background, indicating the child’s home language and English abilities. Educators measured DLLs’ English proficiency using adult–child co-play activities and language observations. Afterwards, educators completed a survey regarding the usefulness of these instruments. Findings show that DLLs’ receptive English language ability was higher than and significantly correlated with their expressive ability in their home language and English. Also, parents’ estimate of their children’s English language ability was similar to that of educators. The correlation between DLLs’ home language and English proficiencies was statistically significant, but low, indicating that the two languages do not necessarily develop together. Educators found the formative instruments helpful in understanding DLLs’ language proficiency and believed that such an understanding could inform their instruction. Results provide implications for assessing DLLs’ English language ability using age appropriate instruments.

Semantic priming and reading skills among Spanish-speaking dual language learners

ABSTRACT Substantial research among bilingual adults indicates that exposure to words primes other semantically related words within and across languages, as well as the direct translation equivalents [e.g. Chen and Ng 1989. “Semantic Facilitation and Translation Priming Effects in Chinese-English Bilinguals.” Memory & Cognition 17: 454–462]. However, there is less research on semantic and translation priming among bilingual children. The purpose of this study was to evaluate semantic priming effects as an indicator of underlying lexical quality among Spanish-speaking dual language learners (DLLs) in the U.S., including examination of whether semantic and translation priming effects were related to children’s reading-related skills. Ninety-five Spanish-speaking DLLs in second and fourth grade completed an eye-tracking semantic priming task along with measures of English and Spanish reading-related skills. Results indicated that there were consistent translation priming effects, with observed translation priming stronger from English to Spanish than from Spanish to English. Additionally, there were consistent within-English semantic priming effects. Results suggested that semantic priming effects were stronger for children with higher levels of English vocabulary and reading comprehension than they were for children with lower levels of English vocabulary and reading comprehension. Findings are discussed in the context of theoretical models of bilingual language processing, as well as the lexical quality hypothesis [e.g. Perfetti 2007. “Reading Ability: Lexical Quality to Comprehension.” Scientific Studies of Reading 11: 357–383].

A Model of Co-Construction for Curriculum and Professional Development in Head Start: The Readiness through Integrative Science and Engineering (RISE) Approach

Background/Context In the context of increasing accountability mandates in the preK–12 education system, the importance of professional development (PD) supports for early childhood educators is recognized. Education leaders emphasize the importance of partnering with teachers to inform the development of effective PD approaches. This partnering process is often referred to as co-construction. Co-construction with teachers is thought to be an essential element for ensuring that the learnings gained from any PD program are maintained once intensive supports are removed. However, guidance is scant concerning specific aspects of effective co-construction. Purpose of Study In this article, we document the process of co-construction within the Readiness through Integrative Science and Engineering (RISE) curriculum and PD approach. In so doing, we hope to illuminate processes potentially at work within the “black box” of PD. Setting/Participants The RISE project was implemented at two Head Start program sites that served a high proportion of dual language learning children and immigrant families in a large city in the northeastern United States. Participants were teachers and parent volunteers from these two programs. Research Design Using grounded theory methods, qualitative data on implementation across key RISE contexts were analyzed. Data collected across three years included digital audio- and video-recorded interactions among participants, written documentation of meeting agendas, planning notes, and meeting notes. Results Analyses resulted in the articulation of a three-step process: (1) setting the conditions for co-construction (establishing mutual respect and trust among partners, leveling roles and authority, and validating/naming partners’ expertise); (2) establishing joint activities as the core process (setting shared goals and agenda, building relationships, and validating co-constructed products); and (3) observing outcomes of co-construction (shifts in attitudes and interactional roles, appropriation of RISE concepts, and integration of RISE components). Conclusions/Recommendations The RISE model of co-construction comports with what others in the field have proposed about the importance of teacher input into their own professional learning, adding further dimensionality through systematic documentation and grounded theory analysis. We discuss how the RISE co-construction approach is similar to and distinct from other such efforts in the field of early childhood education, and we suggest future directions for research to document and test effective PD processes.

Evidence of support for dual language learners in a study of bilingual staffing patterns using the Classroom Assessment of Supports for Emergent Bilingual Acquisition (CASEBA)

The mounting numbers of young Hispanic children in the United States (now about 25% of those under five) require unique considerations in efforts to meet their particular needs for preschool education. Among the most agreed upon practices to address these needs are the provision of strategic and intentional interactions in English with use of children’s home languages (HLs) for instruction. However, challenges include the capacity among the workforce to deliver instruction in two languages and whether assistant teachers may be relied on to provide HL instruction. Further, to assess the quality of interactions deemed best for dual language learners (DLLs) use of an observation tool explicitly designed to understand these contexts for DLLs is warranted. The purpose of this study was to examine the relative effectiveness of different teacher and assistant teacher bilingualism combinations on teaching practices as assessed using the Classroom Assessment of Supports for Emergent Bilingual Acquisition (CASEBA; Freedson, Figueras, & Frede, 2009), a tool specifically designed for measuring language supports for preschool DLLs. Results indicate that classroom quality scores relative to staff language configurations differed with Spanish-speaking lead teacher pairs, earning significantly higher scores than the other staff language configuration groups. Associations between the CASEBA and children’s English and Spanish receptive vocabulary scores were also examined, revealing a relationship between assistant teacher’s home language use and English receptive vocabulary scores. These findings present a springboard for policy conversations regarding the supply and demand of bilingual teachers and teacher assistants, pre-service training and professional development, and the ways in which a specific classroom observation tool can inform all of these areas.

Language use, home literacy environment, and demography: Predicting vocabulary skills among diverse young dual language learners in Norway.

From a socio-cultural perspective, language offers a means for children to communicate with and learn from others through interaction: language is the medium through which young children are provided cognitive, social, and emotional support in interactions with caregivers, siblings, and peers; and children characterized as dual language learners (DLLs) have in common that they receive this developmental support in two different languages. However, due to variations in socioeconomic factors, ethnic/immigration background, and language socialization practices, DLLs display considerable variability in their first- and second-language proficiency (McCabe, Tamis-LeMonda, Bornstein, Cates, Golinkoff, Guerra, Hirsh-Pasek, Hoff, Kuchirko, Melzi, Mendelsohn, Páez & Song, 2013).

Language exposure and phonological short-term memory as predictors of majority language vocabulary and phonological awareness in dual language learning

AbstractPrevious work suggests that child-internal and -external factors influence dual language learning (DLL), although more work is needed – to clarify the role of phonological short-term memory (PSTM) and language exposure in particular. Accordingly, we investigated the role of language exposure and PSTM in phonological awareness and receptive and expressive vocabulary development in the majority language in DLL. PSTM was measured with both a language-specific and language-universal nonword repetition task (NWR). Sixty-five DLL preschoolers were assessed twice, five months apart. Results show that maternal majority-language proficiency as well as language-specific and universal NWR predicted all outcomes, whereas length of exposure to the majority language only predicted receptive and expressive vocabulary. Current exposure did not predict any outcome. The findings extend previous research on child-internal and child-external factors as predictors of DLL to phonological awareness and language-universal NWR.

Listening to Head Start teachers: Teacher beliefs, practices, and needs for educating dual language learners

Using a multiple methods approach, this study investigated (1) Head Start teachers’ beliefs and practices regarding dual language learning and education for dual language learners (DLLs), and (2) the received supports, challenges, and needs teachers have when educating DLLs. Open-ended semi-structured interviews were conducted with eight Midwestern, English monolingual, Head Start lead teachers who had DLLs in their classrooms. The data were analyzed using structured thematic content analysis. The credibility and understanding of the findings from the interviews were enhanced by additional data sources including a survey of teacher beliefs on dual language learning and education, an observation of classroom materials for teaching DLLs, and quantitative data on teachers’ language use in the classroom. Findings showed that a majority of teachers reported using instructional strategies specific to DLLs, but they felt unsure about their preparation. When there was support, the teachers tended to report a sense of comfort in educating DLLs. Teachers had pro-bilingual beliefs, but their beliefs vary on the use of differentiated or universal teaching practices. Furthermore, teachers viewed supporting the home language of DLLs as important, but several also felt that some parents’ preferences contradicted their beliefs on the importance of fostering the home language(s). Teachers reported receiving some support from their administration and parents to help educate DLLs, and also identified multiple challenges in working with DLLs and their families (e.g., difficulties in communication). They expressed needing more support and personnel who can assist them in communicating with a wide variety of DLLs and their parents beyond those who use Spanish. Implications for practice are discussed.

Developing oral language in young dual language learners, Cultivating Oral Language and Literacy Talent in Students (COLLTS)

ABSTRACT Dual language learners are a growing population in early learning and care settings. Young DLLs have the potential to develop proficiency in two languages when provided adequate supports; however, most teachers of young DLLs feel inadequately prepared to support DLLs. Cultivating Oral Language and Literacy Talent in Students (COLLTS) is an evidence-based dual language program that provides teachers with lessons to support DLLs’ language development. Findings from a study of COLLTS conducted in Head Start Centers serving Spanish-speaking DLLs indicate that children who participated in the intervention demonstrated significant improvement in oral language skills compared with students who did not participate in the intervention. In this paper, we showcase the COLLTS methods used to develop DLLs’ language during vocabulary instruction, interactive shared reading and writing, foundational skills development, and family engagement activities.

Quantity-Focused Language Input Intervention: Impact on Adult Words Delivered to At-Risk Dual Language Learners

ABSTRACT Spanish-English-speaking dual language learners (SE-DLLs) from low-income backgrounds are at risk for experiencing academic difficulty compared to peers of ethnic-majority, middle- and high-income backgrounds. Caregiver language input is a consistent predictor of later developmental and academic outcomes. The current study targeted caregivers (n = 9) of young SE-DLLs from low-income backgrounds in a language input intervention using a quantitative feedback device called Starling by Versame and its corresponding smartphone application that provided caregiver word counts and visual displays of caregiver input. In a multiple-baseline design, three cohorts of participating families tracked daily adult word counts. Researchers selected high-priority, 15-minute segments of interaction in naturalistic settings to characterize the intervention’s effect. Results indicated a limited effect of the Starling intervention on quantity of adult words across selected high-priority contexts in visual analysis and hierarchical linear modeling. Participants rated the intervention as socially and culturally valid. Null findings of intervention importantly contributed unique evidence about the use of technology-based, quantity-focused language input feedback and its social validity with families of Spanish-English-speaking backgrounds in low-income conditions.

Enrollment in public-prekindergarten and school readiness skills at kindergarten entry: Differential associations by home language, income, and program characteristics

The present study examined differences in school readiness skills in the fall of kindergarten between pre-K attendees and non-attenders (n = 2581) among children in a large, diverse county. Also considered was the extent to which skills associated with pre-K enrollment varied as a function of children’s background characteristics and features of their pre-K program. Results revealed pre-K attenders demonstrated better academic and executive function skills in the first months of kindergarten than non-attenders; no consistent differences were detected for teachers’ reports of children’s socioemotional adjustment. Differences in academic skills and self-regulation associated with attendance in pre-K were largest for dual language learners and children from the lowest-income families. Children enrolled in private pre-K programs demonstrated less optimal socioemotional skills at kindergarten entry.

Preservice teachers’ use of a translation app with dual language learners

This article explores preservice teachers’ (PSTs), use of a translation app with dual language learners (DLLs). The TPACK (technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge) framework serves as the conceptual framework for the study in order to explore how PSTs integrated technology use with their current pedagogical and content knowledge. The PSTs taught three lessons in which they integrated the Speak & Translate app (S&T). After each lesson, the PSTs completed a reflection that focused on the use, successes, and challenges of the app integration. Through qualitative coding methods, the results revealed that PSTs primarily used the app to translate key vocabulary. The results also revealed positive changes in DLLs’ engagement and behaviors when the app was used. Further investigation into PSTs’ use of translation apps with DLLs holds promising potential for successful technology integration in the school setting.

The Home Numeracy Environment and Measurement of Numeracy Performance in English and Spanish in Dual Language Learners

Some evidence suggests that the home numeracy environment (HNE) is related to children’s numeracy. Socioeconomic status (SES) and language minority status can also influence children’s HNE and numeracy. Limited HNE research focuses on dual language learners (DLLs). Using a sample of preschool-aged children ( n = 98) from low socioeconomic status (SES) backgrounds, we examined differences between Spanish-speaking DLLs’ ( n = 37) and monolingual English speakers’ ( n = 61) numeracy, differences in HNEs, and predictive role of HNE on numeracy. Using frequentist and Bayesian t tests, we found that numeracy was not significantly different between DLLs and monolingual English speakers when DLLs’ numeracy was measured in English or in both English and Spanish. However, DLLs’ Spanish numeracy was lower than monolingual English speakers’ English numeracy, t(96) = 2.10, p = .038, Bayes factors (BF10) = 1.51. HNE did not significantly predict either group’s numeracy regardless of assessment language. This study is an important step toward understanding DLLs’ HNE and numeracy.

Contexts for self- and co-regulated learning in a dual-language elementary school classroom

Using a qualitative case study design and applying a sociocultural theoretical perspective, support for self- and co-regulated learning in an elementary Spanish and English dual-language classroom was documented. The multi-age classroom comprised 33 students acquiring English and Spanish, at school (52% female students; 20 fourth grade and 13 fifth grade students; 28 dual-language learners). Spanish was the home language for most students. Four classroom observations of mathematics and writing instruction periods and three in-depth teacher interviews were collected over a five-month period. Analyses of inductive, deductive and thematic coding characterize the teacher’s and students’ interactions that worked to support student self-and co-regulated learning of the two languages. Findings suggest that flexible learning contexts coupled with communicative activities provide a classroom microculture that affords students opportunities to become more regulated (i.e. setting own learning goals, reflective of strategies) learners of English and Spanish. These results have implications for practice, informing educators about instructional methods that support self- and co-regulated language learning in dual-language environments.

Within and Across Language Predictors of Word Learning Processes in Dual Language Learners.

This study investigated the relation between Dual Language Learners' (N=90) vocabulary and grammar comprehension and word learning processes in preschool (aged 3-through-5years). Of interest was whether: (a) performance in Spanish correlated with performance in English within each domain; and (b) comprehension predicted novel word learning within and across languages. Dual-language experience was evaluated as a potential moderator. Hierarchical linear modeling revealed stronger predictive associations within each language than across languages. Across languages, results varied by experience and domain. Structural sensitivity theory suggests exposure to two languages heightens awareness of parameters along which languages vary and provides a framework for interpreting complex associations within and across languages. Knowledge from one language may influence learning in both.

Patterns of Development in Spanish-English Conceptually Scored Vocabulary Among Elementary-Age Dual Language Learners.

Purpose Elementary-age dual language learners (DLLs) from Spanish-speaking homes in the United States are often characterized as at risk for low vocabulary in both Spanish and English. This longitudinal study examined conceptually scored receptive and expressive vocabulary development among DLLs from Spanish-speaking, low-income homes and investigated patterns of language responses on the conceptually scored measures. Method DLLs in kindergarten and second grade (N = 118) attending school in the Southeast region of the United States were followed for three consecutive academic years and assessed on measures of receptive and expressive conceptually scored vocabulary. Results Individual growth modeling, using raw scores, revealed positive vocabulary growth over time, with above average performance relative to national norms. However, initial conceptually scored receptive vocabulary scores were higher than conceptually scored expressive vocabulary scores. Furthermore, DLLs' conceptually scored receptive-but not expressive-vocabulary rate of growth was more rapid compared to national norms. Finally, DLLs' patterns of language responses revealed a shift toward more English over time, but Spanish continued to be used through fourth grade. Conclusion Results contradict deficit-driven views about DLLs' vocabulary skills and underscore the utility of conceptually scored vocabulary measures to assess vocabulary development among elementary-age DLLs to more comprehensively account for the linguistic assets they bring to learning.