Dry Sanitation Research Articles

Infrared Thermal Image Processing Technique for Evaluating Superheated Steam as a Dry Sanitation Method

Infrared Thermal Image Processing Technique for Evaluating Superheated Steam as a Dry Sanitation Method

Development of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, Listeria monocytogenes, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa multi-species in vitro dry surface biofilm models: Insights into resilience and persistence in low-moisture environments

Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, Listeria monocytogenes, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa can persist as dry surface biofilms (DSB) and survive desiccation for prolonged periods of time. This could serve as potential sources of contamination in low-moisture food (LMF) processing environments. The objectives of this study were to develop in vitro mono-and mix-culture DSB models to better understand pathogen survival under dehydrated conditions as DSB. Mono-and mix-culture wet surface biofilms (WSB) of S. enterica ser. Typhimurium ATCC 14028, L. monocytogenes FSL R8-5318, and P. aeruginosa ATCC 15442 were developed following EPA MLB SOP MB-19 protocol on borosilicate glass coupons using a CDC® biofilm reactor. WSB were harvested and dried for 24, 48, and 72 h at 21 °C to form DSB. Mean log10 CFU/cm2 were calculated at each desiccation time point and compared to control (WSB) using LSM of PROC GLM to fit linear models (P = 0.05). Approximately 8.8 ± 1.7, 7.1 ± 1.1, 6.9 ± 0.6, and 6.3 ± 0.8 mean log10 CFU/coupon were recovered from mono-culture Salmonella DSB at 0, 24, 48, and 72 h, respectively. Overall, Salmonella mean log10 densities were limited when co-cultured with P. aeruginosa although there were no significant differences in Salmonella density over desiccation time points. Mean log10 CFU/coupon for L. monocytogenes monoculture DSB were comparatively lower i.e., 5.7 ± 0.4 (0 h), 3.8 ± 0.1 (24 h), and 3.4 ± 0.6 (48 h), and 2.6 ± 0.3 (72 h). However, when co-cultured with P. aeruginosa, L. monocytogenes exhibited consistently higher cell densities 6.7 ± 0.4, 6.0 ± 0.9, 5.6 ± 0.04, and 4.9 ± 0.6, at 0, 24, 48, and 72 h, respectively. On average, P. aeruginosa consistently exceeded six log10 at each desiccation time point in co-culture. Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) images confirmed biofilm development and persistence over time in mono and mixed cultures. This work provides foundational evidence toward better understanding pathogen survival under dehydrated conditions, interactions between different pathogens within desiccated biofilms, and their respective survival rates. Additionally, these data provide quantitative assessment of bacterial load within DSB under high-risk scenarios for LMFs. These models provide opportunities to explore targeted mitigation strategies, including efficacy of dry sanitation practices, to prevent the formation or remove DSB in LMF processing environments.

Inactivation of Enterococcus faecium and Geobacillus stearothermophilus spores on stainless steel through dry sanitation approaches using superheated steam and ultraviolet C-LED

Inactivation of Enterococcus faecium and Geobacillus stearothermophilus spores on stainless steel through dry sanitation approaches using superheated steam and ultraviolet C-LED

Dry Sanitation Technologies: Developing a Simplified Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis Tool

Safely managed sanitation is indispensable for societies to ensure public health, environmental protection, and economic and social development. This could be achieved, in large areas of the world, through dry sanitation systems. Dry sanitation systems are especially used in water-scarce regions and low-income households. In dense peri-urban areas, the achievement of safe sanitation necessitates a comprehensive fecal sludge management (FSM) service chain, surpassing the mere provision of latrines. This research introduces an automatic Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) approach, which focuses on the particular interface/storage stage of the FSM service chain. The tool aims to support the decision-making process and may be especially useful in the early stages of sanitation planning as it compares different technologies with potential application in low-income countries. It includes different criteria and parameters for the Social, Economic, Technical, and Environmental dimensions of dry sanitation options (SETEds), being adaptable to different contexts and to different priorities. The main key strengths of the tool were found to be its minimal data requirements and ability to customize operation and maintenance cost parameters. These features are particularly relevant in data-scarce contexts, where traditional models may lead to unreliable recommendations or lack of solution ownership by users. The tool was applied to the Ambriz case study, a coastal town in Northern Angola, in West Africa. The obtained results are analyzed and show the tool’s application provides technology recommendations aligned with the site and community characteristics.

Surface inoculation method impacts microbial reduction and transfer of Salmonella Enteritidis PT 30 and potential surrogates during dry sanitation

Dry sanitation methods are often limited to physical removal strategies such as brushing or wiping with sanitary cleaning tools. However, the relative efficacy of these approaches to remove microbiota on surfaces, and the risk of transferring cells to other surfaces via the cleaning tool, is unclear. The effect of dry wiping with a single-use towel on the removal of four different bacteria (Salmonella Enteritidis, Enterococcus faecium, Listeria innocua, Escherichia coli) was investigated. We also quantified the number of cells transferred to the towel itself during dry cleaning. Three different surface inoculation methods (spot, glass bead, contaminated milk powder) were assessed and significantly impacted initial surface microbial load. Higher initial counts corresponded to lower transfer coefficients (e.g., proportion of transferred cells). The effect of bacterial identity was significant on reduction after dry wiping for all three inoculation methods. Moreover, both bacterial identity and inoculation method had significant effects on the number of cells transferred to the towel. In most scenarios, dry wiping resulted in a reduction <1.0 log CFU/coupon. Although, on surfaces inoculated via contaminated milk powder, reductions of up to 1.6 ± 0.3 log CFU/coupon were obtained. Overall, E. faecium transferred more readily to the towel. These results may help guide experimental design for future research on dry sanitation.

Comparative evaluation of the effectiveness of alcohol-based sanitizers, UV-C radiation and hot air on three-age Salmonella biofilms

Dry sanitation is recommended to control contamination and prevent microbial growth and biofilm formation in the low-moisture food manufacturing plants. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of dry sanitation protocols on Salmonella three-age biofilms formed on stainless steel (SS) and polypropylene (PP). Biofilms were formed for 24, 48 and 96 h at 37 °C using a cocktail of six Salmonella strains (Muenster, Miami, Glostrup, Javiana, Oranienburg, Yoruba) isolated from the peanut supply chain. Then, the surfaces were exposed to UV-C radiation, hot air (90 °C), 70% ethanol and a commercial product based on isopropyl alcohol for 5, 10, 15 and 30 min. After 30min exposure, on PP the reductions ranged from 3.2 to 4.2 log CFU/cm2 for UV-C, from 2.6 to 3.0 log CFU/cm2 for hot air, from 1.6 to 3.2 log CFU/cm2 for 70% ethanol and from 1.5 to 1.9 log CFU/cm2 for the commercial product. On SS, after the same exposure time, reductions of 1.3–2.2 log CFU/cm2, 2.2 to 3.3 log CFU/cm2, 1.7 to 2.0 log CFU/cm2 and 1.6 to 2.4 log CFU/cm2 were observed for UV-C, hot air, 70% ethanol and commercial product, respectively. UV-C was the only treatment affected by the surface material (p < 0.05) whereas the biofilm age influenced the effectiveness of UV-C and hot air (p < 0.05). For most treatment, there was significant difference among the exposure times (p < 0.05). Overall, the fastest loss in the biofilm viability was noted in the first 5 min, followed by a tail phase. The time predicted by the Weibull model for the first decimal reduction ranged from 0.04 to 9.9 min on PP and from 0.7 to 8.5 min on SS. In addition, the Weibull model indicates that most of treatments (79%) required a long-term exposure time (>30 min) to achieve 3-log reductions of Salmonella biofilms. In summary, UV-C showed the best performance on PP whereas hot air was noted to be the most effective on SS.

Oil-Based Sanitization in Low-Moisture Environments: Delivery of Acetic Acid with Water-in-Oil Emulsions.

Contamination with Salmonella spp. and Listeria monocytogenes is concerning across low-moisture food (LMF)-processing environments due to the pronounced survival of these organisms under dry conditions. This study treated desiccated bacteria with acetic acid delivered by oil with and without water-in-oil (W/O) emulsion. The influences of cellular desiccation, emulsion water concentration, water activity (aw), and treatment temperature were investigated. Acetic acid dissolved in oil (i.e., acidified oil) showed low levels of antimicrobial efficacy. After treatment with acidified oil (200 mM acetic acid at 22°C for 30 min), Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis phage type 30 cells desiccated to 75% equilibrium relative humidity (ERH) and 33% ERH were reduced by 0.69 and 0.05 log CFU/coupon, respectively. The dispersion of a low level of water (≥0.3%, vol/vol) within the acidified oil with the surfactant (i.e., acidified W/O emulsion) significantly enhanced the antimicrobial efficacy. After treatment with the acidified W/O emulsion (200 mM acetic acid at 22°C for 20 min), desiccated Salmonella (4-strain cocktail) and L. monocytogenes (3-strain cocktail) cells were reduced by >6.52 log most probable number (MPN)/coupon, regardless of the desiccation levels. Increased efficacy was observed with temperature elevation. Reduced efficacy was observed when glycerol was added to the aqueous phase of the emulsion to decrease the solution aw, indicating that the enhanced efficacy of the acidified W/O emulsion was associated with differential osmotic pressure. The antimicrobial mechanism may be due to the membrane disruption induced by acetic acid, in combination with the hypoosmotic stress provided by W/O emulsion, creating cellular lysis, as illustrated by electron micrographs. IMPORTANCE Aqueous-based cleaning and sanitation are undesirable in processing facilities that manufacture low-moisture foods such as peanut butter and chocolate. Alcohol-based sanitization is advantageous because it leaves no residue on the contact surface but requires the processing facility to close temporarily due to flammability. At >6.52 log kill of desiccated Salmonella and Listeria monocytogenes cells, the developed oil-based formulation has the potential to be an effective dry sanitation method.

Modelling the drying characteristics of human faeces using thin-layer drying models and calculation of mass transfer properties at ambient conditions

Convective drying was used to investigate the drying characteristics of human faeces. Thin-layer drying semi-empirical models were used to describe the drying characteristics of human faeces under varying conditions of temperature, air velocity and relative humidity. The drying experiments were conducted at moderate near-ambient conditions, with temperatures of 20 °C, 25 °C, 30 °C, 35 °C and 40 °C, and air flows of 0.1 m/s, 0.2 m/s and 0.5 m/s, at relative humidity of 5%, 10%, 20% and 40%, and initial moisture content of 82.2%, 78.1%, 71.7%, 71.1% and 64.2%. The experimental data curves for faeces for varying temperatures were fitted to the Newton, the Henderson and Pabis, the Page, and the Midilli-Kucuk models, while other experimental conditions were kept constant. Page model was the best fitting model, with R2 values ranging from 0.9950 to 09,977. Effective moisture diffusivity and convective mass transfer coefficient were found to vary from 8.81 × 10−8 m2/s and 1.31 × 10−5 m/s at 20 °C to 9.57 × 10−7 m2/s and 3.49 × 10−4 m/s at 40 °C, respectively. The activation energy was found to be 42.38 kJ/mol. The results presented in this study confirm that human faeces can be dried under moderate ambient conditions by using solar and wind energy. The modelled kinetics can inform the development and design of a dry sanitation system that does not require electricity or any other fuels for heating and air convection.

Beyond a mediocre customer experience in the circular economy: The satisfaction of contributing to the ecological transition

This article aims to understand and explain the differences in circular (versus traditional) economy consumption habits. It explores the customer experience's role in influencing satisfaction and reuse decisions. Data is collected through a mixed-methods case study. Specifically, the article looks at an innovative ecological sanitation system for urban households aiming at collecting human waste for valorization. Among the participating households, 46 persons provided data: 12 were interviewed about their motives for and experience of using dry sanitation and participating in the waste collection process, 42 answered a user profile survey focusing on demographics and basic individual values, and 36 submitted diary entries (123 in total) providing detailed descriptions and evolutions of their experiences. Based on this rich dataset, the findings highlight that the customer experience is largely inferior to that of using traditional sanitation systems because it is inconsistent, inconvenient and requires significant customer efforts (e.g., voluntary participation, creativity, and bricolage skills). Nonetheless, this mediocre experience is counterbalanced by the customer's personal values and beliefs, as well as the satisfaction of achieving a more responsible and sustainable activity.

Effect of Dry Sanitation Methods on Three-Age Salmonella Biofilms

Effect of Dry Sanitation Methods on Three-Age Salmonella Biofilms

Re-emergence of dry toilets and fecal nutrient reuse in M'zab cities

Abstract In the M'zab valley, dry toilets represent an ancestral dry sanitation system, serving as a source of fertilizer thanks to human excrement valorization. However, in the 20th century, local populations began to shun these systems. The objective of this article is to illustrate the importance of dry toilets on agricultural and environmental scales in ancient M'Zab, and the renewal of these systems in response to sanitation problems in the oasis after their decline. The hypothesis put forward is that dry toilets can act as a complementary system to conventional sanitation systems. Data were collected through interviews with the local population. Our results show that the use of dry toilets, and the resulting use of human excrement as fertilizer, has gone through three phases. First, a phase of strong recycling dynamics, followed by a second phase of decline in dry toilet use which is linked to the discovery of the Albian aquifer and flush toilet adoption. The third phase is characterized by dry toilet reuse in response to oasis degradation caused by sanitation and environmental problems. Some oasesians have taken the initiative to revert to dry toilets to ensure oasis system sustainability and to revive the practice of recycling human waste.

Human excreta as a resource in agriculture – Evaluating the fertilizer potential of different composting and fermentation-derived products

Acknowledging the resources in human excreta provides new options to address future challenges for fertilizer availability and nutrient management in a sustainable way. In dry on-site sanitation systems, the high nutrient concentration and low volume of the waste provides an opportunity for low-tech recycling, while the product can be a valuable input to the local agro-ecological system. However, successful recycling requires balanced fertilization with a low environmental impact. The aim of this study was therefore, to evaluate and compare the nutritional content and fertilizer potential of different organic amendments derived from human excreta. Nine amendments were obtained previously by treating human excreta from a dry toilet through composting or fermentation at 7°C, 20°C or 38°C, followed by a secondary vermicomposting. We evaluated the fertilizer potential of the amendments by conducting a soil incubation study to determine nitrogen and phosphorus mineralization, and by a pot experiment with barley. For all amendments, the nitrogen mineralization was slow and the available nitrogen determined the yield. The treatment method had a significant effect on the availability of nitrogen and the amendments obtained by active composting at 38°C had significantly higher levels of total and mineral nitrogen than those composted/fermented at 7°C and 20°C. These amendments also led to the highest barley yields, which were equivalent to a mineral nitrogen fertilization of 30 to 60 kg N ha−1. These findings contribute towards better agronomic value quantification of products from on-site dry sanitation systems and the effect of treatment method on the availability of nitrogen.

Inhibition of ammonia and hydrogen sulphide as faecal sludge odour control in dry sanitation toilet facilities using plant waste materials

On-site dry sanitation facilities, although cheaper than wet sanitation systems, suffer from high malodour and insect nuisance as well as poor aesthetics. The high odour deters users from utilizing dry sanitation toilets as an improved facility leading to over 20% open defecation in Sub-Saharan Africa. To address this malodour concern, this study first assessed odour levels, using hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and ammonia (NH3) as indicators, on two dry sanitation facilities named T1 and T2. The potential of using biomass (sawdust, rice husk, moringa leaves, neem seeds), ash (coconut husk, cocoa husk) or biochar (sawdust, rice husk, bamboo) as biocovers to remove or suppress odour from fresh faecal sludge (FS) over a 12-day period was investigated. Results showed that the odour levels for H2S in both T1 (3.17 ppm) and T2 (0.22 ppm) were above the threshold limit of 0.05 ppm, for unpleasantness in humans and vice versa for NH3 odour levels (T1 = 6.88 ppm; T2 = 3.16 ppm; threshold limit = 30 ppm limit). The biomasses exhibited low pH (acidic = 5–7) whereas the biochars and ashes had higher pHs (basic = 8–13). Basic biocovers were more effective at H2S emission reduction (80.9% to 96.2%) than acidic biocovers. The effect of pH on suppression of NH3 was determined to be statistically insignificant at 95% confidence limit. In terms of H2S and NH3 removal, sawdust biochar was the most effective biocover with odour abatement values of 96.2% and 74.7%, respectively. The results suggest that biochar produced from locally available waste plant-based materials, like sawdust, can serve as a cost-effective and sustainable way to effectively combat odour-related issues associated with dry sanitation facilities to help stop open defecation.

A Review of Dry Sanitation Systems

Dry sanitation systems (waterless or composting toilets) have been used since the 1970s. Their use has received acceptance in rural regions of Europe and the United States. Some of the advantages of dry sanitation systems include their waterless nature, their low energy requirement and the creation of fertilizer as an added value product. Moreover, the use of such a system is a sustainable sanitation approach that may reduce the burden on infrastructure and provide sanitation to the 2.5 billion people worldwide who do not currently have access to it. The critical factors when choosing a dry sanitation system and their optimum parameters include aeration, moisture content (50%–60%), temperature (40–65 °C), carbon to nitrogen ratio (25–35), pH (5.5–8.0) and porosity (35%–50%). The temperature–time criterion approach is the most common method used to evaluate the stability and safety of the compost as a fertilizer. The risks of handling the waste after 12 months of composting have been calculated as low. Here, we have reviewed and assessed the features of dry sanitation systems currently available, focusing on those designed for and operated in remote areas such as national parks and tourist destinations and, more importantly, in rural areas in developing countries or refugee shelters where water/sanitation may be scarce.

New concepts in urban water management

Present water management must change in order to alleviate water- related environmental and health problems of growing population in the world. The target is to use novel technologies capable to recycle nutrients present in wastewater and organic part of solid waste to agricultural production. Key technologies that should be developed are: bioconversion methods, dry sanitation, separation sanitation, other locally adapted wast water treatment and recycling methods such as aquaculture systems, wastewater irrigation. New goals of sustainable development put new targets to be addressed in research and development activities conducted both on scientific and professional levels.

Application of Hydropedological Information to Conceptualize Pollution Migration From Dry Sanitation Systems in the Ntabelanga Catchment Area, South Africa

The hydrological response of catchments is determined by the combined hydropedological response of hillslopes. In the Ntabelanga area, 56% of the households use pit latrines and untreated drinking groundwater supplies. Soil morphological properties and their spatial distribution were used to conceptualize hillslope hydropedological behaviour to determine the fate of Escherichia coli and faecal coliform from 4 pit latrines. Four hillslopes below the pit latrines (MT1, MT2, MT3, and MT4) occur above first-order tributaries to the Tsitsa River, South Africa, were studied. The studied sites are adjacent to the proposed footprint of a planned multi-purpose storage dam, Ntabelanga. Apedal soils, without morphological evidence of saturation, dominated the upper slopes of MT1 and the lower slopes of MT2, thus promoting vertical drainage. Hydromorphic properties were observed at the soil/bedrock interface in the lower parts of MT1 and the entire slope of MT4. This signifies slowly permeable bedrock and the occurrence of lateral flow. High clay contents and strong structured soils were dominant in MT3, indicating slow internal drainage with a large adsorption capacity. The conceptual models derived from morphological properties were verified using soil physical and organic pollutant measurements. In general, hydraulic conductivity values support the interpretations made from soil morphological measurements. Faecal coliforms and E coli bacteria counts were mostly &lt;1 CFU/g soil in MT1, MT2, and MT4; hillslope migrations were detected in MT3 posing pollution risks.

Community Mobilization for Slum Upgrading through Sanitation in Roma Informal Settlements in the Paris Region.

Community-based processes addressing environment, housing, and health issues may decrease health inequities by addressing social, economic, and political health determinants more effectively. Yet little analysis of their effectiveness has been undertaken and their potential transfer to marginalized groups in rich country settings. In Europe, stark health inequalities are seen among the Roma, Europe's most impoverished community who often reside in informal settlements suffering from illiteracy, inadequate housing, and lack of water and sanitation. This paper assesses a dry sanitation project in a Roma informal settlement in the Paris region to improve their living conditions. Between 2014 and 2017, multiple stakeholders were involved in a participatory process of design, construction, and maintenance of toilets. Interviews, mapping, model construction, and facilitated discussion were used to identify design features and follow-up indicators. Field notes, videos, questionnaires, and observation provided data for monitoring and evaluation. For questionnaires delivered to women in the community, a cross section time series was conducted to due to migration. Despite issues related to maintenance, the overall quality of life of women improved after toilet construction. This included indicators for comfort, cleanliness, practicality, privacy, security, and menstrual hygiene management. Furthermore, fewer women restrained themselves from relieving themselves or from drinking less water to avoid urinating. Odors continued to be an issue. Self-reporting of illnesses, such as diarrhea and urinary tract infections, were not reliable due to the vague description of these illnesses and the potential recall bias. Appropriate sanitation in informal settlements is a necessity as shown by feedback from Roma women and the literature. However, a more sustainable toilet project would have required an adequate budget, good quality materials, accountability, and buy in from all inhabitants as well as good relationships between the chief and all stakeholders in the settlement. Furthermore, provision should have been made for vulnerable and less autonomous inhabitants to ensure proper follow-up and maintenance. Safe water and sanitation is essential to decrease health inequities. Formative research, identifying natural leaders, sanitation committee formation, outcome indicator and baseline questionnaire development, appropriate messages and toilet design and placement, long-term follow-up, and political support are elements for effective interventions with the Roma. Potential attrition and reporting bias should be considered in monitoring and evaluation.

Plasma processed air for biological decontamination of PET and fresh plant tissue

Currently used methods for decontamination and sanitation of fresh/fresh‐cut food as well as food processing surfaces are antimicrobial ineffective, generate high costs with a high consumption of water, and chemicals additionally. As an alternative, non‐thermal plasma at atmospheric pressure could be a versatile tool. Therefore, an experimental set‐up based on a microwave‐plasma source which generates plasma processed air (PPA) containing manifold RNS‐based chemical and antimicrobial compounds is used. The PPA is introduced into a reaction chamber for the decontamination of packaging material and fresh produce. This is a new and innovative method for the generation of antimicrobial active air used for dry sanitation. In our experiments, PET stripes, fresh‐cut lettuce, and fresh sprouts are contaminated with six different bacteria; Escherichia coli K12 (DSM 11250), Pseudomonas fluorescens (DSM 50090), Pseudomonas fluorescens (RIPAC), Pseudomonas marginalis (DSM 13124), Pectobacterium carotovorum (DSM 30168), and Listeria innocua (DSM 20649) in a concentration of 108 cfu ml−1 and subsequently treated with PPA. For PPA production, the plasma is ignited for 5, 15, or 50 s. After a post‐plasma treatment with PPA of maximum 5 min, decreases of bacterial load up to 6 log10 cfu ml−1 are detected for P. fluorescens (both strains) and P. carotovorum on PET. On plant tissue only once a reduction higher than 5 log10 cfu ml−1 is gained (P. carotovorum on sprouts). For all other bacteria and specimen, the inactivation rate is less. The characteristics of plasma and its generated cocktail of long living chemical compounds in air leading to a high bacterial inactivation and offering a wide range of possible applications.

Comparing Sanitation Delivery Modalities in Urban Informal Settlement Schools: A Randomized Trial in Nairobi, Kenya.

The provision of safely managed sanitation in informal settlements is a challenge, especially in schools that require durable, clean, sex-segregated facilities for a large number of children. In informal settlements in Nairobi, school sanitation facilities demand considerable capital costs, yet are prone to breakage and often unhygienic. The private sector may be able to provide quality facilities and services to schools at lower costs as an alternative to the sanitation that is traditionally provided by the government. We conducted a randomized trial comparing private sector service delivery (PSSD) of urine-diverting dry latrines with routine waste collection and maintenance and government standard delivery (GSD) of cistern-flush toilets or ventilated improved pit latrines. The primary outcomes were facility maintenance, use, exposure to fecal contamination, and cost. Schools were followed for one school year. There were few differences in maintenance and pathogen exposure between PSSD and GSD toilets. Use of the PSSD toilets was 128% higher than GSD toilets, as measured with electronic motion detectors. The initial cost of private sector service delivery was USD 2053 (KES 210,000) per school, which was lower than the average cost of rehabilitating the government standard flush-type toilets (USD 9306 (KES 922,638)) and constructing new facilities (USD 114,889 (KES 1,169,668)). The private sector delivery of dry sanitation provided a feasible alternative to the delivery of sewage sanitation in Nairobi informal settlements and might elsewhere in sub-Saharan Africa.

Evaluation of Sanitary Conditions in Kuje Market in Abuja, Nigeria with Diverse Cultural Practices and Provision of a Dry Ecological Toilet System

This paper presents the general sanitation practices by the traders in a major market in Kuje located in the Federal Capital Territory (FCT), Abuja and our efforts in reorientating the market stakeholders towards the provision and use of a new dry sanitation toilet complex. The market is known for its diversity in Nigerian ethnicity, culture and the variety of goods and services. A novel toilet complex was designed and built which has the following features: 8 toilet units (4 each for male and female), urine diversion, a gender-segregated urinal, a urine storage tank, used menstrual absorbents disposal facility for women, bathing facility and a composting chamber for organic fertilizer production from the generated faecal matter and market wastes. The design also made provision for culturally sensitive persons to use a small spray of water for anal cleaning. There was provision for hand washing with soap. The respondents provided baseline information that enabled the design features through 5 Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) and 2 Focus Group Discussions (FGDs). This was followed by interviewed administered, semi-structured questionnaire which utilized a total sampling approach where the owners of all the 199 lock-up and open stalls in the market were enrolled and participated in the study. The mean age of the respondents was 34.3 ± 9.7 years and 55.8 % were females. The sources of water in the market were: hand dug well (11.7 %), borehole (37.6 %), water vendor (41.6 %) and sachet water (9.1 %). The market has three existing toilets that were mostly patronized by males. Due to poor maintenance of the existing toilets, women preferred open defecation and use of potty in their stalls, disposed with solid wastes. Most respondents (80.7 %) were willing to pay and use the newly built dry toilet in the market as they perceive aesthetics (28.9 %), cleanliness (21.8%) and disease prevention (6.6%) as major benefits. The toilet design serves as a model for other public institutions where sanitation is compromised. The market community owns, operates and maintains the facility and the user charges are levied for sustainability.