Dry Film Method Research Articles

Development of a New Vaccine Adjuvant System Based on the Combination of the Synthetic TLR4 Agonist FP20 and a Synthetic QS-21 Variant.

In this study, we formulated an alternative to AS01b by combining FP20, a synthetic TLR4 agonist, and QS21v, a minimal saponin adjuvant, aiming to improve the vaccine efficacy and stability. The phase transition temperature of FP20 was determined by using differential scanning calorimetry to be 43.9 °C, providing a foundation for the formulation process. The coformulation was prepared using a dry film method for even adjuvant distribution. Characterization by dynamic light scattering and nanoparticle tracking analysis revealed a uniform particle size distribution of ∼120 nm. Cryogenic electron microscopy (CryoEM) revealed nanosized interactions between FP20 and QS21v, forming stable structures that likely enhanced the antigen presentation and immune activation. These physicochemical properties contributed to a robust in vivo synergy, where the coformulation elicited significantly higher antigen-specific antibody titers compared to individual adjuvants. These findings suggest that the FP20+QS21v coformulation provides a potent, stable, and safer alternative to traditional adjuvants, enhancing both vaccine efficacy and immunogenicity.

Toxicity of several insecticides against fruit flies Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) and Bactrocera carambolae (Drew and Hancock) (Diptera: Tephritidae) in the laboratory

Bactrocera dorsalis and Bactrocera carambolae are major pests of various commodities that could cause significant losses, if not controlled. Insecticide usage is a common control carried out by farmers. The test was conducted to determine the toxicity level of several types of insecticides on the mortality of two different fruit fly species. The fruit fly population used in the study came from the collection owned by Center for Forecasting Plant Pest Organisms (BBPOPT), Karawang. The research method used was an experimental method with a Randomized Block Design. The test was carried out using the dry film method. The concentration ranges used were 0.02-1 ml/L fipronil insecticide, 0.01-0.6 ml/L ethion insecticide, 0.02-0.6 ml/L deltamethrin insecticide, and 0.02-0.8 ml/L lambda-cyhalothrin insecticide. The control treatment used was acetone alone. Each treatment was replicated thrice. Mortality was observed at 1, 3, 24, and 48 hours after treatment. Cumulative mortality at 48 hours after treatment was analyzed using probit to determine the LC50 and LC95 values ​​at 48 hours. The results showed that the insecticide deltamethrin was the most toxic insecticide to B. carambolae with an LC50 value of 0.025 ml/L and an LC95 of 0.646 ml/L. Ethion was the most toxic insecticide for B. dorsalis with LC50 values ​​of 0.046 ml/L and LC95 of 0.746 ml/L. The LC50 values ​​of all insecticide treatments for two different species were below the recommended concentrations.

Kayısı Bahçelerinde Kullanılan Bazı Pestisitlerin Laboratuvar Koşullarında Exochomus nigromaculatus (Coleoptera:Coccinellidae)’a Karşı Yan Etkilerinin Araştırılması

Several harmful pest species can cause damage to apricot trees. Chemical control is the often preferred method in controlling these pests. The use of pesticides has generally resulted in pesticide resistance and elimination of natural enemies. Exochomus nigromaculatus is a predatory insect of globose scale and other scale insects. Inappropriate use of pesticides has been linked with adverse effects on non-target organisms (e.g., reduction of beneficial species populations and increase of pest populations). This study evaluated the side effects of five insecticides (Acetamiprid, deltamethrin, spirotetramat, sulfoxaflor, dimethoate) and a plant extract (orange oil) on immature stages of E. nigromaculatus using dry film method. Acetamiprid and deltamethrin caused the highest mortality rate (97.3%) besides standard toxic dimethoate. Sulfoxaflor accounted for approximately 70% mortality to E. nigromaculatus. In contrast, spirotetramat and orange oil caused less than 20% mortality to the predator. As a result of the dry film method applied against the pre-adult stage of E. nigromaculatus; dimethoate was classified as harmful (class 4), acetamiprid and deltamethrin were classified as moderately harmful (class 3), sulfoxaflor were classified as less harmful, (class 2) while spirotetramat and orange oil were classified as harmless. Thus, it was concluded that spirotetramat and orange oil did not have a negative effect on the predatory insect, E. nigromaculatus and could be used safely in IPM programs.

Improving the accuracy of coliform detection in meat products using modified dry rehydratable film method.

This study was undertaken to improve the detection accuracy for coliform bacteria, by analyzing biochemical properties of false positive and false negative colonies isolated from two dry rehydratable film methods, 3M™ Petrifilm™ E. coli/Coliform count (PCC) and MC-Media Pad coliform count (MCC). The detection accuracy of PCC and MCC was determined to be 99.4% and 97.9%, respectively, with the detection error being 0.6% and 2.1%, respectively. False positive colonies (red colony without gas) on PCC were identified as Hafnia alvei and Enterobacter cloacae. All false positive colonies on MCC were identified as Aeromonas caviae; this organism gives a positive oxidase test, whereas coliform bacteria are oxidase negative. In conclusion, we propose that for improving detection accuracy of coliform bacteria, the incubation time of PCC should be modified and increased from 24h to 48h, and the oxidase test of MCC isolates should be included in the Korea Food Code.

Evaluation of freeze-dried human sera as a novel approach for ATR-FTIR spectroscopic analysis as compared to conventionally used thin dry film sera.

Evaluation of the diagnostic potential of freeze dried sera in comparison to thin dry film analysis for recording ATR-FTIR spectra. For this purpose, we compared our novel sample preparation technique i.e. freeze dried with conventional technique i.e. thin dry film sera. Using both methods ATR-FTIR spectra were recorded from Salmonella Typhi infected and healthy control human sera samples. When PCA was applied PC1 scores showed more inter-class variation among infected and healthy controls when freeze dried sample was used (90 %) as compared to thin dry film method (46 %). Potential of ATR-FTIR for discrimination of bio-molecules between two classes of samples is enhanced when freeze dried sera instead of thin dry film method is used.

Generation of Cationic Nanoliposomes for the Efficient Delivery of In Vitro Transcribed Messenger RNA.

The development of messenger RNA (mRNA)-based therapeutics for the treatment of various diseases becomes more and more important because of the positive properties of in vitro transcribed (IVT) mRNA. With the help of IVT mRNA, the de novo synthesis of a desired protein can be induced without changing the physiological state of the target cell. Moreover, protein biosynthesis can be precisely controlled due to the transient effect of IVT mRNA. For the efficient transfection of cells, nanoliposomes (NLps) may represent a safe and efficient delivery vehicle for therapeutic mRNA. This study describes a protocol to generate safe and efficient cationic NLps consisting of DC-cholesterol and 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine (DOPE) as a delivery vector for IVT mRNA. NLps having a defined size, a homogeneous distribution, and a high complexation capacity, and can be produced using the dry-film method. Moreover, we present different test systems to analyze their complexation and transfection efficacies using synthetic enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) mRNA, as well as their effect on cell viability. Overall, the presented protocol provides an effective and safe approach for mRNA complexation, which may advance and improve the administration of therapeutic mRNA.

Resistance Level of Crocidolomia pavonana Against Profenofos Synthetic Insecticide and its Susceptibility To Azadirachta Indica Seed Extract

This research was conducted to know resistance level of Crocidolomia pavonana to a profenofos synthetic insecticide and to know susceptibility of C. pavonana to Azadirachta indica seed extract. The experiment using two bioassay methods, dry film method and feeding method. Field population of C. pavonana obtained from 3 villages in Lembang district i.e.Cibogo, Cikole and Kayu Ambon village. The standard insect has been maintenance more than 20 generations in the laboratory as a comparison. The result of the experiment indicated that population of C. pavonana form Cikole, Cibogo and Kayu Ambon village were resistant to profenofos insecticide with resistance ratio (RR) was low (1< RR ≤ 5). Resistance Ratio of C. pavonana from the third village were 4.69 and 4.83; 1.02 and 1.1 and 1.16 and 1.9 respectively (dry film and feeding method). The value of the resistance ratio was greater through the feeding assay compared to the contact assay. This indicated that the mechanism of C. pavonana resistance was likely to occur mainly in the digestive tract of insects. Enzime activity of the different sample population of C. pavonana indicated variation in their activity. This was indicated that every sample from different field could develop different mechanism of resistance. The toxicity study of A. indica seed extract to C. pavonana indicate that the field population of C. pavonana from the third village was susceptible to seed extract of A. indica with value RR of less than one point. Therefore seed extract of A. indica could be used as alternative control against C. pavonana which resistant to profenofos synthetic insecticide. Keywords: Resistance mechanism, Resistance ratio, Synthetic insecticide, Botanical insecticide

Resistance Level of Crocidolomia pavonana Against Profenofos Synthetic Insecticide and its Susceptibility To Azadirachta Indica Seed Extract

This research was conducted to know resistance level of Crocidolomia pavonana to a profenofos synthetic insecticide and to know susceptibility of C. pavonana to Azadirachta indica seed extract. The experiment using two bioassay methods, dry film method and feeding method. Field population of C. pavonana obtained from 3 villages in Lembang district i.e.Cibogo, Cikole and Kayu Ambon village. The standard insect has been maintenance more than 20 generations in the laboratory as a comparison. The result of the experiment indicated that population of C. pavonana form Cikole, Cibogo and Kayu Ambon village were resistant to profenofos insecticide with resistance ratio (RR) was low (1< RR ≤ 5). Resistance Ratio of C. pavonana from the third village were 4.69 and 4.83; 1.02 and 1.1 and 1.16 and 1.9 respectively (dry film and feeding method). The value of the resistance ratio was greater through the feeding assay compared to the contact assay. This indicated that the mechanism of C. pavonana resistance was likely to occur mainly in the digestive tract of insects. Enzime activity of the different sample population of C. pavonana indicated variation in their activity. This was indicated that every sample from different field could develop different mechanism of resistance. The toxicity study of A. indica seed extract to C. pavonana indicate that the field population of C. pavonana from the third village was susceptible to seed extract of A. indica with value RR of less than one point. Therefore seed extract of A. indica could be used as alternative control against C. pavonana which resistant to profenofos synthetic insecticide. Keywords: Resistance mechanism, Resistance ratio, Synthetic insecticide, Botanical insecticide

Insecticidal property of Citrus sinensis fruit waste against papaya mealybug Paracoccus marginatus

Laboratory experiments were conducted during August to March, 2018–2019, to evaluate the insecticidal property of Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck fruit waste viz., peel and seed against the papaya mealybug Paracoccus marginatus (Williams and Granara de Willink). Five solvents, viz., hexane, ethyl acetate, methanol, diethyl ether and dichloromethane were used to extract the bioactive compounds. The efficacy of these extracts was evaluated against P. marginatus at 10000 ppm for their oral or contact toxicity, through leaf contamination and dry film method, respectively. The methanol extract was observed to exert maximum mortality of P. marginatus in leaf contamination method (88.89% and 86.11%, respectively) and also dry film method (88.33%, 78.06%, respectively) after 72 hr after treatment. The chemical profile of the methanol extract of seed and peel analysed with GC-MS was also done.

Comparative evaluation of neonatal bilirubin using Radiometer whole blood co-oximetry and plasma bilirubin methods from Roche Diagnostics and Ortho Clinical Diagnostics

BackgroundClinically significant variation has been reported within and between plasma and whole blood total bilirubin methods used to identify neonates for whom clinical intervention for hyperbilirubinemia may be required. ObjectiveTo evaluate total bilirubin measurements between the Radiometer whole blood co-oximeter and plasma bilirubin methods from Roche Diagnostics and Ortho Clinical Diagnostics using neonatal specimens. MethodsTotal bilirubin levels were analyzed by whole blood co-oximetry (Radiometer® ABL90). Specimens were centrifuged and plasma analyzed for total bilirubin with a diazo method (Roche Cobas® C-601) and a reflectance spectrophotometric BuBc dry film method (Ortho Clinical Diagnostics VITROS® 350). Results were evaluated by regression, Bland-Altman comparisons and t-tests. ResultsThe patient correlation study yielded the following regression equations in μmol/L: a) Radiometer=1.03 Roche – 3.5μmol/L b) Radiometer=0.98 Ortho – 5.7μmol/L c) Roche=0.97 Ortho – 2.4μmol/L. The mean bias over the range of total bilirubin levels examined was −1.0μmol/L for the Radiometer versus the Roche (p≤0.305); −4.4μmol/L for the Radiometer versus Ortho (p≤0.005) and −4.4μmol/L for the Roche versus Ortho (p≤0.002). ConclusionsWhole blood total bilirubin measurement using the Radiometer ABL90 blood gas analyzer provides accurate and precise results compared to the Roche plasma diazo method. Compared to the reflectance spectrophotometric method, results are precise and had a small but statistically significant bias of −4.4μmol/L.

Eco-Toxicological Effect of Insecticides on the Larval Parasitoid,Bracon brevicornisWesmael (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)

Laboratory tests using the dry film method were conducted to assess the toxicity of different commonly used insecticides and insect growth regulators to Bracon brevicornis. The carbamate insecticide, carbosulfan, was highly toxic to B. brevicornis with a LC50 value of 0.0001 mg a.i./l, whereas pymetrozine and buprofezin had LC50 values of 0.1056 and 0.0374 mg a.i./l, respectively. Among the three neonicotinoids, acetamiprid showed the highest toxicity to B. brevicornis with a LC50 of 0.0041mga.i./l followed by thiamethoxam and imidacloprid. The order of toxicity based on the LC50 values was: carbosulfan > lambdacyhalothrin > bifenthrin > indoxacarb > acetamiprid > thiamethoxam > imidacloprid > buprofezin>pymetrozine. Pymetrozine showed slight to moderate toxicity to B. brevicornis, with a risk quotient (RQ) of 1420, while the RQ value for all other insecticides were dangerously toxic to B. brevicornis. The mean activity of cytochrome P450 in B. brevicornis was 4.2817 nM/mg protein with a frequency distrib...

Seçilmiş İnsektisitlerin Beyazsinek, Bemisia tabaci Genn (Homoptera, Aleyrodidae)’nin Avcısı, Delphastus catalinae (Horn) (Coleoptera, Coccinellidae) Üzerindeki Toksikolojik Etkileri

Toxicological effects of selected insecticides, fenpropathrin+pyriproxifen, acetamiprid, diafenthiuron, pyriproxifen, and chlorfenapyr were tested by direct spray and dry film methods in the laboratory against adult and larvae (L 3 -L 4 ) of Delphastus catalinae (Horn) (Col., Coccinellidae), a predator of whiteflies, including cotton whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Genn.). Water was used as untreated control. Fenpropathrin+pyriproxifen, acetamiprid, and diafenthiuron were harmful to larvae and adults of D. catalinae in both methods. Pyriproxifen was to be seemed harmless to adults in direct spraying technique; however it was harmful to the adults in dry film method. Eggs laid by a few adults which developed pyriproxifen treated larvae failure to hatch in dry film method. In conclusion, chlorfenapyr was innocuous to larvae and adults of D. catalinae in both methods. Fenpropathrin+pyriproxifen, acetamiprid, diafenthiuron and pyriproxifen would be incompatible with biological control of whitefly by D. catalinae .

Bioassay of Plant Extracts AgainstAleurodicus dispersus(Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)

The spiraling whitefly, Aleurodicus dispersus Russell (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae), is a destructive invasive pest in many parts of the world. Topical spray and dry film contact assays were conducted to measure the toxicity of 8 plant extracts and their mixtures traditionally used as insecticides in South Asian countries such as Bangladesh, India, and Nepal. The highest mortality (100%) of adults was recorded for neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss.; Meliaceae) (ethanol) extract (500 mg/L) at 6 h after topical spray. This was followed by 5-leaved chaste tree (Vitex negundo L.; Lamiaceae) (ethanol), sweet sop (Annona squamosa L.; Annonaceae) (acetone), water pepper (Polygonum hydropiper L.; Polygonaceae) (acetone), banyan (Ficus benghalensis L.; Moraceae) (ethanol), banyan (acetone), and crown flower (Calotropis gigantea [L.] W. T. Aiton; Apocynaceae) (ethanol) extracts at 500 mg/L at 12 h after the spray. For the dry film method, the highest mortality (100%) of adults was also recorded for neem (ethanol) extract (500 mg/L) at 18 h after the treatment. Bioassay results indicate that neem (ethanol) extract mixed with crown flower (acetone), oleander (Nerium indicum Mill.; Apocynaceae) (acetone), or sweet sop (ethanol) (in the ratio of 1:1, 1:2, and 1:3 for each plant extract) showed synergism. Neem (ethanol) extract also showed the highest mean repellency rate (93%). In conclusion, neem, 5-leaved chaste tree, sweet sop, water pepper, banyan, and crown flower extracts showed good potential to control A. dispersus, and the mixtures of these plant extracts showed synergistic activity against A. dispersus.

Safety of selected botanical and synthetic insecticides against braconid parasitoids of vegetable ecosystems

Insecticides are unavoidable in pest management programmes especially when the pest crosses economic threshold level (ETL). In this context, some of the insecticides and botanicals that are used in vegetable ecosystem were test verified for their relative safety against the commonly encountered parasitoids viz., Bracon brevicornis Wesmael, Chelonus blackburni Cameron and Cotesia plutellae Kurdjumov. Toxicity effects of five insecticides viz ., Acephate 75SP, Chlorpyriphos 20EC, Cypermethrin 10EC, Profenofos 50EC, Quinalphos 25EC and NSKE 5 per cent against B. brevicornis, C. blackburni and Hexane extracts of Lantana camara var. aculeate tested against C. plutellae were evaluated under laboratory conditions. Amongst insecticides tested, Profenofos 50EC was found to be most toxic with LC 50 value of 22.27 and 16.280 ppm; Chlorpyriphos 20EC was the least toxic with the highest LC 50 value of 198.53 and 314.255 ppm and NSKE 5 per cent had no effect against B. brevicornis and C. blackburni , respectively. C. plutellae pupae were treated with hexane extracts of L. camara resulted of 66.67 and 76.67 per cent with reduction of adult emergence at 8 and 10 per cent, respectively. While, C. plutellae adults were found to be safe at all concentrations except 8 and 10 per cent and its contact toxicity of 63.33 and 96.67 per cent adult mortality recorded within 24h by dry film method. The results suggest that the Chlorpyriphos 20EC and botanical extracts can very well integrate in the management of vegetable insect pests.

Pharmacokinetics and therapeutic efficiency of a novel cationic liposome nano-formulated all trans retinoic acid in lung cancer mice model

PurposeThe externally given all trans retinoic acid (ATRA) for the treatment of certain solid cancers faces challenges such as stability, persistence, and effective targeted delivery into cell which necessitate the development of a suitable liposomal formulation for ATRA treatment. MethodsLipo-ATRA was developed using 1, 2- Dioleoyl-3-trimethylammonium-propane (DOTAP), cholesterol and ATRA (70:20:10) by dry thin film method and investigated for its in vitro characteristics, in vivo ATRA bioavailability and pharmacokinetic properties in normal and cancer mice using HPLC. The in vivo therapeutic efficiency of lipo-ATRA was also studied. ResultsDOTAP lipo-ATRA (91.676 ± 1.29%) of 262.776 ± 1.045 d nm size with smooth spherical surface was developed which was stable at up to 60 days with sustained ATRA release through dialysis membrane. The serum pharmacokinetics for lipo-ATRA in cancer bearing mice has shown a higher half-life-(14.8200h), Cmax (0.66 μg/ml) and a lower CL (46.6061 μg/ml/h) in vivo when compared with free ATRA group (t1/2-13.2205h, Cmax-0.29 μg/ml, CL-136.2725 μg/ml/h). A significantly higher bioavailability in blood and lung even after 24 h with a promising therapeutic efficiency was observed in lipo-ATRA group. ConclusionsThe results showed that the formulation of lipo-ATRA in DOTAP and cholesterol in the ratio of 70:20 was the suitable carrier for ATRA in treating lung cancer.

Safety evaluation of certain newer insecticides to European honeybee,Apis melliferaLinnaeus

The toxicity of nine insecticides viz., acetamiprid, clothianidin, imidacloprid, fipronil, thiamethoxam, spiromesifen, chlorantraniliprole, chlrofenapyr and diafenthiuron at recommended dose was tested on honeybee Apis mellifera L. using the dry film method. Forager bees were released into treated jars at different intervals i.e., 0, 12 and 24 hours after dry film formation. Thiamethoxam, clothianidin and imidacloprid showed high mortality while acetamiprid exhibited moderate mortality. Spiromesifen and chlorantraniliprole caused relatively less mortality.

Determination of glucose in plasma by dry film-based near infrared spectroscopy: Correcting the thickness variations of dry films without applying an internal standard

The quantitative determination of analytes in plasma by dry film-based near infrared spectroscopy (NIR) is significantly affected by the thickness variations of dry films. Internal standards are generally used to enhance the reproducibility of quantitative results. However, it is difficult to select an appropriate internal standard with general applicability, and the introduction of an internal standard into plasma samples also complicates experimental procedures. In this work, a quantitative NIR transmission spectroscopy model was proposed to explicitly model the effects of the variations in thickness and light scattering characteristics of dry plasma films on NIR transmission measurements, and an advance dual calibration strategy based on support vector regression (DCSSVR) was derived from the proposed quantitative model to realize accurate determination of analytes (e.g. glucose) in dried plasma samples without the use of internal standards. By using the dry film method coupled with the proposed technique, glucose in plasma could be determined over a concentration range of 0.4–20mmolL−1 with satisfactory accuracy (average relative predictive error less than 7.0%) while avoiding any use of internal standards. It can reasonably be expected that the DCSSVR strategy might be of major benefit for the quantitative NIR spectroscopic analysis of analytes of clinical significance in dried biofluid samples.

Preparation of Chitosan-Coated Nanoliposomes for Improving the Mucoadhesive Property of Curcumin Using the Ethanol Injection Method

Chitosan-coated curcumin nanoliposomes (CS-Cur-NLs) were fabricated by the ethanol injection method (EIM), and their physicochemical properties were compared with the properties of those fabricated by the dry thin film method (DTFM). The mean size and zeta potential of CS-Cur-NLs gradually increased with CS concentration. The encapsulation efficiency of Cur-NLs prepared by EIM was 54.70%, which was significantly improved compared to that (42.60%) of Cur-NLs prepared by DTFM. Further improvement of encapsulation efficiency was attained (up to 64.93%) by EIM with 0.1% CS coating. The mucoadhesive property of Cur-NLs improved from 33.60 to 56.47% with CS coating. The results indicate that the encapsulated curcumin will show prolonged adsorption in the gastrointestinal tract because of higher mucoadhesion. Thus, EIM can be considered to be effective for food-grade delivery carriers with higher encapsulation efficiency and absence of harmful solvents. EIM-generated CS-Cur-NLs showed higher bioavailability, with enhanced high mucoadhesive property, storage stability, and encapsulation efficiency.

Enhanced Pharmacokinetics and Anti-Tumor Efficacy of PEGylated Liposomal Rhaponticin and Plasma Protein Binding Ability of Rhaponticin

Rhaponticin (RA) extracted from many medicinal plants has been demonstrated to possess a variety of pharmacological activities including potent antitumor, antitumor-promoting, antithrombotic, antioxidant and vasorelaxant activities. However, its poor solubility and bioavailability restricted the clinical application greatly. In this work, surface modification of liposome with polyethylene glycol (PEG) was developed with the purpose of improving the pharmacokinetics and anti-tumor efficacy of RA. PEGylated liposomal RA (PEGL-RA) was prepared by dry-film method. Its mean particle size was 89.3 +/- 8.7 nm, mean zeta potential was -4.1 mV and encapsulation efficiency was 67.4 +/- 6.4%. Moreover, the results of pharmacokinetic analysis showed that the time of maximum plasma concentration (Tmax) of PEGL-RA was about 4.5 times higher than that of free RA after oral administration due to the lower distribution into the gastrointestinal tract. The mean T1/2 value of PEGL-RA and free RA were 350.12 +/- 0.87 min and 180.02 +/- 1.96 min, respectively. The AUC0-->infinity ratio of PEGL-RA to free RA was about 2.41-fold (93.23 microg/mLmin/40.81 microg/mLmin). Plasma protein binding ability of RA was also studied. The results showed that RA with 33.6 microg/mL concentrations in human plasma and HSA achieved the percent of bound 39.23 +/- 3.78% and 22.28 +/- 2.34%, respectively. In the in vivo studies utilizing solid tumor-bearing rat, it was confirmed that PEGL-RA delivered remarkably larger amount of RA to tumor tissue and provided more significant anti-tumor activity than free RA. Furthermore, the cytotoxicity and fluorescence microscopic studies showed higher intracellular uptake of PEGL-RA than that of RA. In conclusion, PEGylated liposome was an effective delivery formulation for RA to increase the pharmacokinetics and therapeutic efficacy.

Safety Evaluation of Eleven Insecticides to Trichogramma nubilale (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae)

The safety of 11 pesticides (indoxacarb, chlorfluazuron, azadirachtin, methoxyfenozide, rotenone, spinosad, acetamiprid, imidacloprid, chlorfenapyr, chlorpyrifos, and triazophos) to Trichogramma nubilale (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) was evaluated in this study. The acute toxicity to the adults was investigated using dry-film method. The influences of the pesticides on both parasitic ability and different developmental stages were studied using corn leaves residual method, rice moth egg card dipping method, and T. nubilale parasitized rice moth egg dipping method. Results showed that methoxyfenozide, azadirachtin, and indoxacarb were safe for the whole life cycle of T. nubilale. Chlorfluazuron, rotenone, and acetamiprid had different levels of impacts on different developmental stages, and they should be chosen to be used according to their safety time with reduced exposure levels. Rotenone was safe for the adults but it was harmful to the other stages, whose dosage should be reduced when it was used. Acetamiprid could be applied during the pupae stage. Finally, to avoid large kill, spinosad, chlorfenapyr, chlorpyrifos, triazophos, and imidacloprid should not be used as they were not safe for any development stage of T. nubilale.