Drug Crime Research Articles

California voters approve rollback of 2014 criminal justice measure

Concerns about the effects of crimes on local communities have convinced California voters to approve a rollback of a criminal justice initiative they had backed in 2014, in a vote that is expected to have a significant impact on mental health funding streams. With just over half of votes counted, Proposition 36 last week appeared headed for an overwhelming victory, standing at just over 70% support. The measure will reclassify as felonies some nonviolent offenses that had been reduced to misdemeanors when the state's voters approved Proposition 47 in 2014. Savings from the 2014 initiative's reduction in incarceration were directed to investment in mental health and related services (see “California ballot item could reduce major mental health funding source,” MHW, Oct. 14, 2024; https://doi.org/10.1002/mhw.34205). California Gov. Gavin Newsom had spoken out strongly against the new initiative, but voters appeared swayed by the effects of thefts, drug crimes and related acts on local communities' quality of life. Under the earlier act's funding formula, 65% of the state's savings from reduced incarceration were directed to mental health, substance use and diversion programs.

Unpacking Human Rights: Freedom of Consciousness, Bodily Autonomy & Right to Life in the Context of War on Drugs Crimes

Abstract This study explores the interplay between the right to life, right to development, bodily autonomy and freedom of conscience, and demonstrates how these factors collectively shape the concept of freedom of consciousness and simultaneously lead to increased access to altered states of consciousness, cognitive liberty, freedom of development, and the peak experiences that Abraham Maslow researched. Second chapter delves into the intersection of human rights and drug policy, specifically examining the implications of the War on Drugs on individual freedoms. It argues that the War on Drugs has led to a violation of fundamental human rights, including cognitive liberty, bodily autonomy, and the right to life. Through an analysis of international human rights law and case studies from around the world, the paper demonstrates how drug-related crimes have resulted in mass incarceration, violence, and human rights abuses. It also explores decriminalization of drug use, end of War on Drugs and criminalization of its’ crimes. The research results provide insights into the interrelation between these three concepts, shedding light on how they intersect and influence each other and in context of War on Drugs hostile environment. Findings also suggest that the War on Drugs has resulted in a significant violation of fundamental human rights.

Standing between the elite and street fields: Young people from affluent communities dealing with drugs

Sociology has a rich tradition studying ‘elite’ and ‘street’ social spaces, but rarely considers spaces between these fields and the social actors within them. This article fills that gap by examining the life stories of affluent Oslo youth engaged in illegal drug dealing. Participants had access to economic, social, and cultural capital in both elite and street social space. Making money in legitimate and illegitimate ways kept participants relatively marginal in both spaces. Having social networks among street-oriented peers and among elites facilitated drug dealing but also allowed them an exit from drug crimes when needed. They were educated and often employed, but also had high levels of drug and street cultural competence. This left them relatively estranged from their affluent background milieu leading to persistence in drug dealing. I argue that illegal drug markets among the affluent can be viewed as an in-between social space, that ‘elite’ or ‘street’ youth are likely best conceptualized as existing on a sociocultural spectrum between fields and provide a Bourdieusian framework to study social actors who stand between fields and the impact this may have on their lives.

The War on Drugs in Juvenile Court? The Influence of Community Context on Juvenile Court Outcomes for White, Black, and Hispanic Youth

Prior research on race/ethnicity and juvenile court processing have found that youth of color often receive disadvantaged outcomes compared to their White counterparts, and that community context may condition this relationship. The current study examined this association between race/ethnicity (White, Black, Hispanic) and type of drug offense (possession vs. distribution) with adjudication and disposition outcomes, especially the tempering effect of disadvantaged community characteristics. Results from multi-level models indicated that Black youth who were charged with a drug distribution offense were more likely to receive residential placement compared to similarly situated Whites. Underclass poverty and racial/ethnic inequality moderated these associations, but the significance and direction of the results differed depending on the stage examined. The findings reveal ongoing racial/ethnic disparities in the juvenile justice system, and offer clearer insights into the conditions under which youth of color charged with different drug offenses are processed in juvenile court.

Police Officers’ Perspectives of Harm Reduction Programs in West Virginia

Background As the United States’ drug epidemic continues and resources dwindle, some police agencies are searching for alternatives to combat drug use in their communities. Some police agencies are interacting with harm reduction programs (HRPs) more frequently. Few studies have documented polices’ perspectives of these programs in rural areas. The purpose of this study was to garner police officers’ perspectives of HRPs and how these programs may influence their work in a rural state. Methods Semistructured interviews were conducted with police officers from January to February 2023. Participants had to be ≥18 years of age and be currently employed as an officer within the state of West Virginia. Participants were recruited across the state using non-probability sampling techniques. The interviews were conducted using a standardized script, audio recorded, and transcribed. Two researchers partook in a thematic analysis with inductive coding to determine themes using NVIVO v11 software. Results Participants ( N = 11) were mainly ≥45 years of age (55%) with ≥25 years of enforcement experience (55%). Five themes transpired: (1) nature of police work, (2) perceived benefits of HRPs, (3) perceived detriments of HRPs, (4) need for education, and (5) programmatic effectiveness and accessibility. Many officers felt HRPs could serve as an alternative to arrest for people who use drugs (PWUD) and decrease their drug use, crime, and infectious disease (i.e., improve safety) overtime. Conversely, officers felt HRPs could be detrimental if they were ineffectual as they could draw more PWUD into a community which could increase crime. Officers also discussed how harm reduction principles often conflict with their training. Conclusions From law enforcements’ perspective, HRPs can positively and negatively impact their work. Officers want more education and data on HRP effectiveness and accessibility. These findings may inform future HRP implementation in rural states such as West Virginia.

The Role of Algerian Courts in Reducing Drug Crimes

Drug crimes are a major challenge facing many countries in the world, and Algeria is one of the countries that face this phenomenon with all challenge and seriousness. In this context, Algerian courts play a vital and crucial role in trying to reduce those crimes and provide justice for those involved. Courts are an essential component of the Algerian justice system, applying laws and legal standards to ensure justice and integrity in society. The analysis of the role of Algerian courts in combating drug crimes comes within a broad framework of challenges faced by the country in this area. Drug crimes are crimes that have a significant negative impact on public security and social stability, and require a firm and effective response. Therefore, understanding the role of Algerian courts in this context is vital to assess the effectiveness of the efforts made and to identify points that can be improved. This research is based on a careful analysis of the role of the Algerian courts in combating drug crimes, focusing on several important aspects, including: how to apply the relevant laws, ensure the rights of the accused and those affected, the effectiveness of the penalties imposed on those involved, in addition to international cooperation in this regard. Drawing on this analysis, we can understand more deeply how the Algerian courts' role in combating drug crimes has affected, what challenges they may face in achieving their goals, and how to improve efforts to promote justice and security in society. Therefore, we pose the following problem: How did the Algerian judiciary address the phenomenon of drugs and what mechanisms did it adopt to reduce this dangerous scourge?

The Role of The Courts in The Application of Criminal Policy to Reduce Drug Crimes

The Iraqi judiciary has been keen to reduce crimes in general, and has paid a high degree of attention to drug crimes, because of their negative effects on the entire society, as the weakness of the state apparatus in general, and the spread of terrorist groups, in the past twenty years have led to an increase in these crimes, which prompted the Iraqi legislator to update the Drug Law No. ( 68 of 1965 ) by legislating the Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Law No. ( 50 of 2017), in addition to taking preventive measures concurrent with punitive measures, by working to create an environment free of elements that encourage the commission of this type of crimes, by removing the factors and circumstances that can contribute to the formation of the criminal personality. However, the judiciary has worked hard to reduce these crimes by forming courts specialized in the crimes of drugs and psychotropic substances in each governorate, and imposing the most severe penalties and measures on the perpetrators of this type of crimes.

Legal Study Analysis of Criminal Law Policy in the Implementation of Integrated Assessment for Drug Abusers based on Law Number 35 of 2009 Concerning Narcotics

Drug crimes pose a serious threat with detrimental effects on the global community, including Indonesia. Drugs are classified as extraordinary crimes that harm physical, mental, social, and economic health. Drug abusers are not criminals who should be imprisoned but individuals who need medical and social rehabilitation, as regulated in Law Number 35 of 2009 on Narcotics. However, the implementation of rehabilitation faces challenges, such as a lack of synchronization among law enforcement agencies and the low number of abusers receiving rehabilitation. This study uses normative juridical research methods with a statute approach, conceptual approach, and case approach. Secondary data were obtained from legal literature and relevant regulations. The results of the study show that the integrated assessment mechanism, involving both medical and legal evaluations, plays a crucial role in determining whether drug abusers are eligible for rehabilitation or imprisonment. However, various obstacles hinder its implementation, such as differing legal interpretations, sectoral egos among institutions, and inconsistencies in placing drug abusers in rehabilitation centers. Moreover, the criminal law policy that prioritizes rehabilitation as a solution requires reform to be more effective in preventing drug-related crimes. The study recommends improving coordination among law enforcement agencies and revising regulations to ensure rehabilitation is prioritized in handling drug abuse cases, aiming to create a more humane and effective justice system.

Inkjet Printing Patterned Plasmonic SERS Platform with Surface-Optimized Paper for Label-Free Detection of Illegal Drugs in Urine.

Rapid quantitative testing of illegal drugs is urgently needed for precisely cracking down on drug crimes. Herein, an optimized paper-based surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) platform with patterned printing of plasmonic nanoparticles was constructed for the on-site quick testing of illegal drugs in urine. The filter paper was first coated with a layer of positive-charged chitosan, so as to reduce its roughness by filling the holes of the cellulose matrix and enhance the adhesion of negative-charged silver ink. Subsequently, hydrophobic modification was performed based on the binary silylation reaction, which could obviously improve the sensitivity of the paper-based SERS substrate by concentrating the amount of analyte. Meanwhile, SERS-active silver ink was fabricated and further printed on the surface of the above modified paper with custom-designed pattern (3 × 6). The performance of this SERS platform was assessed by using crystal violet (CV) as a model tag, and the obtained results proved it possesses excellent sensitivity and reproducibility, in which the relative standard deviation (RSD) dropped remarkably. More importantly, as a proof of concept, rapid detection of standard methylamphetamine (MAMP), one of the most widely abused drugs, was achieved with a limit of detection (LOD) of 1.43 ppb using a portable Raman spectrometer. And it also had a good capability in human urine sample detection, with a correlation index (R2) up to 0.9927. This optimized paper-based SERS platform was easily manufactured, cheap, and portable, providing a new strategy for the on-site detection of illicit drugs.

Reforming Indonesia’s Approach to Narcotics Offenses: A Call for Rehabilitation over Incarceration

This study examines the issue of prison overcrowding in Indonesia, with a particular focus on the impact of current penal policies related to drug-related offenses. The over-reliance on incarceration, especially for minor drug crimes, is identified as a significant contributor to the overcrowding crisis in correctional institutions. Despite legal provisions for rehabilitation as an alternative to imprisonment, inconsistent implementation has hindered efforts to address the root causes of drug-related crimes. The study advocates for a comprehensive reform of Indonesia’s penal system, emphasizing the need to shift from a punitive approach to one centered on rehabilitation and restorative justice. Such reforms are essential not only to alleviate overcrowding but also to ensure the humane treatment of individuals with substance use disorders, in line with international human rights standards. The study concludes with recommendations for enhancing the application of rehabilitation, increasing public awareness, and improving the monitoring of rehabilitation programs to foster a more equitable and effective criminal justice system.

Factors affecting problem-solving court team decisions about medications for opioid use disorder

BackgroundProblem-solving courts (PSCs) provide alternatives to prosecution and incarceration for drug-related crimes and offer integrated support for people who have lost custody of children due to drug use. Methadone and buprenorphine are lifesaving medications for opioid use disorder (MOUD) but are underused by PSC clients. Even when PSCs lack a court-level prohibition against MOUD, court staff still make individualized decisions about whether a court client can use MOUD. Therefore, we sought to identify factors involved in such individualized PSC court decisions about clients' use of MOUD. MethodsWe conducted semi-structured interviews and focus groups between Summer and Fall 2022 with a convenience sample of 54 PSC staff members from 33 courts across four states. Data were analyzed using iterative categorization. ResultsInterviewees indicated that their courts had eliminated blanket prohibitions against MOUD due to federal and state policy funding requirements, widespread dissemination of voluntary best practice standards, fear of lawsuits, and MOUD education targeting courts. Courts allowed MOUD if the court client accessed it through a treatment provider with whom the court collaborates. Some courts only allowed court clients to access MOUD from non-partnering treatment providers after a court-led “vetting” process of the proposed MOUD provider. MOUD provider characteristics considered during the vetting process included the provider's willingness to communicate with the court, frequent drug testing, adjustments of medication or dosage in response to aberrant results, offering of counseling, and acceptance of Medicaid or sliding scale payments. PSC staff were least comfortable with court clients using methadone treatment. ConclusionsThe presence (or lack of) a PSC-MOUD partnership is a key factor involved in court staff decisions when a court client desires MOUD. Therefore, increasing the number of partnerships between PSCs and MOUD providers could lead to higher rates of MOUD utilization. It is unclear whether court-led vetting processes for non-partnering MOUD treatment providers are necessary or appropriate, and such vetting processes could reduce treatment choice or access in communities with few MOUD providers.

Never-Ending Chain of Crime: Defining the Vicious Cycle from Parental Incarceration on Children in Liangshan

Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture is located between latitude 26°03′–29°18′ N and longitude 100°03′–103°52′ in Sichuan, China. It is a region entangled by deep-rooted poverty, elevated crime rates, and educational deficit. This environment has precipitated a severe dilemma wherein a substantial number of Liangshan’s children are at risk of being left behind. Sichuan’s Provincial People’s Court reported that from 2012 to 2016, Sichuan holds a drug-related crime of 29,747 cases, ranked fourth nationally (Chuguang). This critical factor of parental incarceration, predominantly due to drug trafficking offenses, exacerbated the issue of children being left behind in Liangshan. Parental incarceration is an on-going issue across the world. Multiple researchers have consequences of economic hardship, children’s criminal involvement, parent-child detachment, educational deficits, and psychological challenges, profoundly impacting the children (Murray et al.; Luk et al.; Herreros-Fraile et al.). On top of the single effects, several researchers have referred the vicious cycle of parental incarceration as the inter-generational effects of parental incarceration, driving teen-theft, drug use, and other crime involvements (Dobbie et al.; Herreros-Fraile et al.). However, there is a noticeable gap in defining the vicious cycle of incarceration on children in the context of Liangshan. This paper, therefore, analyzes preceding studies, analyzes the intergenerational impact of each single effects of parental incarceration on children in Liangshan, and defines a Liangshan-based cyclical impact of parental incarceration on Liangshan’s children.

Rapid on-site detection of illicit drugs in urine using C18 pipette-tip based solid-phase extraction coupled with a miniaturized mass spectrometer

Drug abuse is a social issue worldwide, and there is an increasing demand for on-site rapid detection of illicit drugs. In this study, a rapid and simple analytical method for the detection of 6-monoacetylmorphine (6-MAM), methamphetamine (MA), methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), ketamine (K), norketamine (NK), and cocaine (COC) in urine was developed. The developed method combines C18 pipette-tip based solid-phase extraction (C18 PT-SPE) with a miniaturized mass spectrometer (miniMS), exhibiting remarkable simplicity, high sensitivity, and strong reliability, compared with the conventional method. The optimal extraction and elution conditions for C18 PT-SPE were considered as 9 and 3 aspirating-dispensing cycles, respectively. The miniMS parameters including spray voltage, isolation potential, and collision-induced dissociation energy for the detection of these six illicit drugs were optimized using a nano-electrospray ionization method. The limit of detection (LOD), limit of quantification (LOQ), linear range, and linearity for the analysis of six illicit drugs in urine with the proposed C18 PT-SPE-miniMS method were determined. Except for the LOD of K and COC was determined as 0.5 and 0.25 ng mL−1 respectively, and the LOD of 6-MAM MA, MDMA, and NK was determined as 1 ng mL−1. This method enables rapid on-site detection, providing easier operation, lower cost, and better portability compared to conventional methods, making it a potential tool in drug crime investigation and forensic science.

Digital Markets Dynamics and Ethical Considerations of Online Drug Sales via Cryptomarkets

The article is devoted to a topical topic – the analysis of a new way of selling drugs via the Internet and using cryptocurrency. In the article, the authors analyzed the Internet as a medium for drug trafficking; the composition of the criminal offense, which consists of the illegal sale of drugs; the social conditionality of criminalization of drug trafficking via the Internet; trends in the use of cryptocurrencies for drug trafficking; money laundering from drug trafficking through cryptocurrencies and measures to combat drug trafficking online and through cryptocurrency. It is emphasized that the appearance of this way of selling drugs is due to the development of technologies and their undoubted advantages, which criminals, from small fraudsters to criminal groups, adapt to carry out illegal activities. The number of people who buy illegal drugs on the dark web is gradually increasing; more and more buyers prefer to pay with cryptocurrency, and criminals are trying to legalize the proceeds of drug crime through the crypto market. All this indicates the increased social danger of such drug trade compared to other forms of their sale due to significant profits, the involvement of a large number of consumers, and direct and hidden effects on the growth of a country: public health issues, organized crimes, security concerns, etc. However, the fight against drug trafficking on the Internet and with the use of crypto-currency has not been properly regulated at the national and international levels. Considering this to fight against such actions effectively, the following is necessary today: an official definition of the status of cryptocurrency in legislation and the development of new methods, tactics, and technologies for the investigation of crimes. Drug business on the Internet and through cryptocurrencies, which will consider the latter's peculiarities and will be constantly updated in accordance with the pace of evolution of digital currencies; establishment of cooperation of cryptocurrency exchanges, financial institutions, regulators, law enforcement agencies, and technology providers.

Illicit drug use in Limerick City: A stakeholder and policy analysis using multiple streams model.

The changing drug situation in Ireland has led to the development of various drug policies. This paper aims to use Limerick City as a case study to examine approaches to policy development. The study is qualitative and uses a hybrid technique that combines document, content, and stakeholder analysis. Kingdon's multiple streams model underpins this study. In addition, guidelines for the systematic search for grey literature were adopted as the search strategy. Problem Stream: Illicit drug use and its related problems have changed. The increasing availability of drugs, increasing usage and changes in the types of drugs being used have led to increased drug-related crimes, adverse health outcomes and elevated demand for treatment services. Local drug policies and initiatives emerge by recognising drug-related problems in the region. Policy Stream: The current national drug strategy 2017-2025 which informs action plans in Limerick is the first to focus on a unified health approach. Some national policies have evolved to ensure that guidelines meet current service needs. However, these changes have occurred in some cases with no clear actions. Political Stream: Statutory, voluntary and community stakeholders provide drug addiction and drug addiction-related services, which have evolved rapidly since their first introduction. The Mid-West Regional Drug Task Force was identified as essential in coordinating stakeholders locally. One area for improvement is limited evidence of the voices of persons who take drugs included in service/policy development. This regional analysis also suggests that local implementation of policies concerning dual diagnosis and supervised injection facilities can be further expanded. Despite the challenges experienced by stakeholders in Limerick, a hands-on approach has been adopted in the creation of strategies to tackle the drug problem. The approaches to drug policy development have delivered continuous development of services. However, services remain underdeveloped in areas removed from the capital city of Dublin. Navigating the complex drug landscape reveals that inclusivity, adaptation, and ongoing research are critical components of successful and long-lasting drug policies.

Assessing Drug Crime Concentrations Across Types of Rural and Urban Areas

Crime is highly concentrated in a small percentage of micro-places, such as street segments. Research indicates that drug crimes might show even higher spatial concentration levels than property and violent crimes. Similarly, studies have shown that hot spots policing interventions for drug crimes are more effective than for other crimes. However, what we know about drug crime concentrations in micro-places is based almost exclusively on urban areas. Differences in crime concentrations in micro-places between rural and urban areas might, in turn, impact the effectiveness and transferability of common intervention strategies. This study addresses these issues by assessing drug crime concentrations in micro-places across diverse geographic area types (i.e., small cities, suburban areas, small towns, touristic, and rural areas). Adapting recent methodological advancements that allow for accurately assessing spatial concentrations for rare events, the study shows that drug crimes are, overall, highly spatially concentrated and can show even higher levels of concentration in some types of less urbanized areas.

The Changes in Drug Laws to Apply the Death Penalty for Drug-Related Offences in Vietnam

Vietnam has a history of executing individuals for particularly serious crimes. Applying the death penalty for drug-related crimes has sparked considerable debate since the first criminal code in 1985. Vietnam has retained this toughest punishment as one of the deterrent methods to combat drug trafficking in the last three decades. However, as a retentionist-and-reductionist state, Vietnam abolished capital punishment for several crimes in the last code (2015), including drug possession and appropriation. The application of the death penalty for drug offences in Vietnam has evolved in response to international standards and the country’s global integration. Despite these changes, the death penalty remains a contentious issue in Vietnam, with the country maintaining its right to use it in its criminal code system. The path towards the complete abolition of capital punishment for drug offences is still uncertain because this complex issue involves political, legal, and social aspects in Vietnam’s context, particularly when the Communist Party’s ideologies still prefer a supply-driven reduction. This study uses personal reflections from over 20 years to focus and combine with the grey literature from national reports and desk-study in Vietnam’s legislative documents. Seven specific thoughts with relevant recommendations in the last section will explain why we should need further evidence to (re)call for consideration to reduce the death penalty for drug offences before requesting/asking Vietnam to abolish these concerns immediately.

Court-ordered forensic psychiatry treatment in prison: determinants of outcome and risk mitigation.

Court-ordered forensic psychiatry treatments (COT) are specifically designed to reduce the risk of violence in mentally disordered offenders. Given their high costs and ethical issues, mental health professionals need admission criteria to be able to select those candidates with optimal benefit. This study analyses offender-related and treatment-related determinants of COT outcome and risk mitigation. This two-year longitudinal study assessed the evolution of 117 adult offenders admitted to a specialized medium-security forensic psychiatry clinic. Treatment outcome included court-ordered discharge locations and the Historical Clinical Risk Management (HCR) score evolution. Treatment progress was assessed every six months across five time-points including measures of protective factors, work rehabilitation and security. Outcome determinants included psychiatric diagnosis and type of offence. Discharge locations are predicted by pre-treatment risk level. Lower HCR scores are associated with discharge into low-security psychiatry wards independently of the psychiatric diagnosis. Risk reduction follows diagnosis-specific and offense-related patterns and reveals that mentally disordered offenders with Cluster B personality disorders or those sentenced for drug crimes are significantly less prone to benefit from COT. Our findings indicate that criminological characteristics at baseline as well as diagnosis of personality disorders are the main determinants of treatment outcome in our care setting. Inmates with concomitant higher violence risk at baseline and presence of Cluster B personality disorders might benefit the least from court-ordered forensic inpatient psychiatric care in prison.

A comparison of first-time offenders, repeat offenders, and frequent utilizers of the criminal justice system

Frequent utilizers of the criminal justice system heavily strain local resources due to their ongoing interactions with criminal justice agencies and their disproportionate need for social and behavioral health services. We first identify and compare frequent utilizers ‘demographic and legal characteristics to first-time and repeat offenders by analyzing two years of prosecution data from three counties in a large Florida jurisdiction. Ordinal regression is then employed to evaluate the impact of first-time offenders, repeat offenders, and frequent utilizers on filed charge severity and the harshness of punitive sanction. Results reveal that frequent utilizers are more likely to be involved in property and drug offenses than personal offenses. They also have an enhanced proclivity to be represented by public defenders or assigned counsel, be held pretrial, and receive custodial sentences. However, contrary to previous research, our findings show that frequent utilizers exhibit a more serious pattern of offending than first-time or repeat offenders. These findings suggest the need for rigorous state monitoring of frequent utilizers in the community while still underscoring the importance and effectiveness of various rehabilitative and prevention strategies beyond the criminal justice system's purview to address the complexities of frequent utilizers’ needs.

Roadblocks for Successful Treatment in Opioid Substitution Therapy Center in India: An Opinion based on Observation

In India, opioid addiction is a serious emerging problem. Opioid substitution therapy (OST), particularly buprenorphine, has been shown to be very cost-effective and has significant evidence of reduced drug-related HIV risk behaviors, crime, and illegal opioid usage. Raising the standard of living and enhancing public health is one of the main goals of this therapy, with a special emphasis on the center’s efforts to promote harm reduction. However, incidents of reported patient abuse or misuse of these drugs frequently lead to unfavourable opinions of this crucial life-saving procedure. Therefore, the administration and government must move immediately to address the issue.