Droplet Size Of Nanoemulsions Research Articles

Comparison of two self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems using different solidification techniques for enhanced solubility and oral bioavailability of poorly water-soluble celecoxib

In this study, we aimed to develop a solid self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (S-SNEDDS) and a solid self-nanoemulsifying granule system (S-SNEGS) to enhance the solubility and oral bioavailability of celecoxib. This process involved the preparation of a liquid SNEDDS (L-SNEDDS) and its subsequent solidification into a S-SNEDDS and a S-SNEGS. The L-SNEDDS consisted of celecoxib (drug), Captex® 355 (Captex; oil), Tween® 80 (Tween 80; surfactant) and D-α-Tocopherol polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (TPGS; cosurfactant) in a weight ratio of 3.5:25:60:15 to produce the smallest nanoemulsion droplet size. The S-SNEDDS and S-SNEGS were prepared with L-SNEDDS/Ca-silicate/Avicel PH 101 in a weight ratio of 103.5:50:0 using a spray dryer and 103.5:50:100 using a fluid bed granulator, respectively. We compared the two novel developed systems and celecoxib powder based on their solubility, dissolution rate, physicochemical properties, flow properties and oral bioavailability in rats. S-SNEGS showed a significant improvement in solubility and dissolution rate compared to S-SNEDDS and celecoxib powder. Both systems had been converted from crystalline drug to amorphous form. Furthermore, S-SNEGS exhibited a significantly reduced angle of repose, compressibility index and Hausner ratio than S-SNEDDS, suggesting that S-SNEGS was significantly superior in flow properties. Compared to S-SNEDDS and celecoxib powder, S-SNEGS increased the oral bioavailability (AUC value) in rats by 1.3 and 4.5-fold, respectively. Therefore, S-SNEGS wolud be recommended as a solid self-nanoemulsifying system suitable for poorly water-soluble celecoxib.

O1/W/O2 double emulsion gels based on nanoemulsions and Pickering particles for co-encapsulating quercetin and cyanidin: A functional fat substitute

An O1/W/O2 double emulsion gel, as a functional fat substitute and based on nanoemulsions and hydrophobic Pickering particles, is prepared by two-step emulsification to co-encapsulate hydrophilic cyanidin and hydrophobic quercetin. Nanoemulsions loading quercetin are fabricated by Tween-80 and combining high-speed and high-pressure emulsification. Phytosterol nanoparticles stabilize the W-O2 interface of the secondary emulsion to load cyanidin in the W phase. The concentration of Tween-80 is optimized as 0.3% by the droplet size and viscosity of nanoemulsions. The structural stability of double emulsion gels will be weakened along with the increase of nanoemulsions, showing lower modulus and encapsulation efficiency (EE) and bigger droplets. In double emulsion gels, the EE of quercetin and cyanidin reaches 93% and 85.6%, respectively. Analysis of molecular interaction indicates that Tween-80 would decrease the in-situ hydrophobicity of phytosterol nanoparticles by hydrogen bonding adsorption, thereby weakening the emulsification. The pH-chromic 3D printing of double emulsion gels is designed according to the pH sensitivity of cyanidin. Texture profile analysis is performed to test the textural properties of 3D-printed objects. The simulated digestion is conducted on double emulsion gels. The double emulsion gel with fewer nanoemulsions is beneficial for protecting quercetin and improving the delivery due to the higher structural stability, while that with more nanoemulsions is conducive to the digestion of cyanidin and camellia oil due to weakened semi-solid properties. This double emulsion gel further simulates fat tissues by co-encapsulating hydrophilic and hydrophobic substances, promoting the application of fat substitutes in the food industry.

Effect of cinnamaldehyde-nanoemulsion and nanostructured lipid carriers on physicochemical attributes of reduced-nitrite sausages

This study aimed to produce cinnamaldehyde (CA)-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) and nanoemulsion (NE) to replace nitrite in sausage. The NLC and NE droplet sizes were 132 and 116 nm with encapsulation efficiency of 98 and 96 %, respectively. In in vitro antimicrobial assessment, the free CA and NE showed higher microbial activity against S. aureus and E. coli than NLC. Meanwhile, NE showed a faster release profile for CA than NLC. Among the samples, NE and NE + nitrite indicated the lowest peroxide value (3.7 ± 0.1), TVBN amount (8.6 ± 0.2), acidity (0.3 ± 0.02), microbial quality (against E. coli, C. perfringens, lactic acid bacteria, psychrophilic bacteria, total mold and yeast, and total viable counts), and sensory attribute, while the NE + nitrite sample exhibited better color properties and higher oxymyoglobin content (5–10 % higher). Therefore, NE + nitrite can be the best choice due to supporting the different quality parameters of sausage.

Effect of Different Hydrophilic-lipophilic Balance (HLB) on Droplet Size, Polydispersity Index and Stability of Lemon Myrtle Nanoemulsion

Using mixed non-ionic surfactants Tween/Span, we determined the required hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) value on the oil in water nanoemulsion of lemon myrtle essential oil. In this study, Span 80 mixed with Tween 80, and Span 20 mixed with Tween 20 were used as mixed non-ionic surfactant. The droplet size, polydispersity index and stability of the lemon myrtle nanoemulsion at different HLB values were obtained over a period of 28 days. Both mixed surfactants have similar required HLB value at HLB 14 due to their smallest droplet size and lowest polydispersity index during the early nanoemulsion preparation. However, after a period of 28 days, nanoemulsion with Span 80-Tween 80 surfactant mixture was more stable compared to Span 20-Tween 20 surfactant mixture. Therefore, HLB 14 using Span 80-Tween 80 surfactant mixture has been selected as the required HLB for lemon myrtle nanoemulsion due to its stability and consistency of droplet size in 28 days.

Lavender and Geranium Essential Oil-Loaded Nanogels with Promising Repellent and Antibacterial Effects

Malaria and bacterial infections remain a life-threatening disease with a significant global impact. This study aimed to develop nanogels (NGs) of lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Mill.) and geranium (Pelargonium graveolens L’Hér.) essential oils (EOs) with promising repellent and antibacterial effects. The NGs were formulated using a nanoemulsion-based gel approach; nanoemulsion droplet sizes and zeta potentials were obtained as 146 ± 7 and 106 ± 6 nm and −23.2 ± 0.7 and −17.4 ± 1 mV, respectively. The ATR-FTIR analysis confirmed the successful loading of EOs in NGs. Repellent bioassays conducted on Anopheles stephensi Liston. mosquitoes demonstrated that geranium NG (140 min) was as effective as DEET (140 min), a widely used repellent. Antibacterial tests showed that the nanogels effectively reduced bacterial growth, with the geranium NG exhibiting over 90% reduction against Escherichia coli Migula. The lavender NG displayed higher efficacy against Staphylococcus aureus Rosenbach. These findings highlighted the potential of nanogels containing EOs as promising repellents and antibacterial agents, offering a sustainable and eco-friendly approach for vector control and bacterial infections.

Citronella essential oil-based nanoemulsion as a post-emergence natural herbicide

A natural herbicide nanoemulsion was fabricated from citronella (Cymbopogon nardus L.) essential oil (CEO) and a nonionic surfactant Tween 60 mixed with Span 60 at hydrophilic-lipophilic balance 14 using a microfluidization method. The main constituents of CEO were citronellol (35.244%), geraniol (21.906%), and citronellal (13.632%). CEO nanoemulsion droplet size and polydispersity index (PI) were evaluated by dynamic light scattering (DLS). The smallest droplet size (33.2 nm, PI 0.135) was obtained from a microfluidizer at 20,000 psi, 7 cycles. Nanoemulsion droplet in transmission electron microscopy correlated with DLS confirmed CEO to successfully produce nanoemulsion. The herbicidal activity of the nanoemulsion as a foliar spray was evaluated against Echinochloa cruss-galli and Amaranthus tricolor as representative narrow- and broadleaf weed plants, both of which presented visual toxicity symptoms. The modes of action of the nanoemulsion were then determined in terms of membrane integrity (relative electrolyte leakage; REL), malondialdehyde (MDA), and photosynthetic pigment contents. The results showed increase in REL and MDA which indicated the destruction of the treated plants; additionally, chlorophylls and carotenoid contents were decreased. Consequently, CEO nanoemulsion may have the possibility to act as a natural herbicide resource, and natural herbicides from citronella nanoemulsions could be good alternatives for use in sustainable agriculture.

Rosehip oil nanoemulsion as a stable delivery system for omega-3 fatty acids to enhance the nutritional value of yogurt

Rosehip oil (REO) contains excessive amounts of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), such as Omega-3 fatty acids (OFA). OFA exhibits instability, poor solubility, and limited bioavailability upon addition to food. In this study, REO nanoemulsion was prepared by probe ultrasonication. Statistically designed experiments were used to optimize Ultrasonication time (5 min), ultrasonication amplitude (37.26 %), and the surfactant (1 %Tween 20) concentration (surfactant to oil ratio of 1.17:1). The spherical morphology of the nanoemulsion was studied using scanning electron microscopy. REO was further characterized by dynamic light scattering (DLS), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. The droplet size of REO nanoemulsion increased from 60 to 88 nm during storage at 4 ⁰C for 28 days. The nanoemulsion had an encapsulation efficiency of 89.7 %, and it was stable based on thermodynamical study. The fatty acid profile confirmed that REO nanoemulsion could preserve linoleic acid compared to the direct addition of REO in yogurt. The sensory study revealed that REO nanoemulsion could mask the tartness of REO when incorporated into yogurt. This study proved that nanoemulsion is a potential tool to enhance the stability of OFA in food systems.

Pharmacokinetics of Two Nanoemulsion Formulations of Δ8-Tetrahydrocannabinol in Rats.

The use of Δ8-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ8-THC) has increased in recent years. Given that the oral absorption of cannabinoids in oil formulations is typically slow and variable, nanoemulsions may be an improved delivery vehicle. Therefore, we characterized the pharmacokinetics (PK) in Sprague-Dawley rats following the administration of three different oral formulations containing 10 mg/kg Δ8-THC: a translucent liquid nanoemulsion, a reconstituted powder nanoemulsion, and a medium chain triglyceride (MCT) oil solution for comparison. Δ8-THC was also administered intravenously at 0.6 mg/kg. Plasma samples were quantified for Δ8-THC and two metabolites, 11-hydroxy-Δ8-THC (11-OH-Δ8-THC) and 11-carboxy-Δ8-THC (COOH-Δ8-THC). Non-compartmental PK parameters were calculated, and a PK model was developed based on pooled data. Despite a smaller median droplet size of the translucent liquid nanoemulsion (26.9 nm) compared to the reconstituted powder nanoemulsion (168 nm), the PK was similar for both. The median Tmax values of Δ8-THC for the nanoemulsions (0.667 and 1 h) were significantly shorter than the median Tmax of Δ8-THC in MCT oil (6 h). This resulted in an approximately 4-fold higher Δ8-THC exposure over the first 4 h for the nanoemulsions relative to the MCT oil solution. The active 11-OH-Δ8-THC metabolite followed a similar pattern to Δ8-THC. The non-compartmental bioavailability estimates of Δ8-THC for the nanoemulsions (11-16.5%) were lower than for the MCT oil solution (>21.5%). However, a model-based analysis indicated similar bioavailability for all three oral formulations. These results demonstrate favorable absorption properties of both nanoemulsions, despite the difference in droplet sizes, compared to an MCT oil formulation.

Cytotoxic Potential of Clarithromycin-Loaded Pumpkin Seed Oil-Based Nanoemulsion on Human Breast, Hepatic and Colorectal Cancer Cells

Medication repurposing is one of the effective strategies in approving drugs for new therapeutic indications. Clarithromycin is a well-known macrolide antibiotic that is commonly used for the treatment of a wide variety of bacterial infections. However, extensive preclinical and clinical studies have recently revealed the efficacy of clarithromycin in treating various tumors in combination with conventional therapy. In this study, we formulated a clarithromycin nanoemulsion using pumpkin seed oil as a natural nano-carrier to study the possible cytotoxic effects against colorectal (HCT 116), breast (MCF-7), and liver cancer (HepG2) in vitro. The formulated nanoemulsion was characterized for droplet size distribution, surface charge, drug loading and in vitro drug release. The droplet size of clarithromycin nanoemulsion was 360.6±42.5 nm and zeta potential was −31.6± 2.8 mV. Incorporating the lipophilic drug, clarithromycin, within nanoemulsion significantly heightened in vitro drug release, compared to plain drug. The anticancer properties of the nanoemulsion formulation were examined using sulforhodamine B (SRB) assay as well as cell cycle and apoptosis analyses. Clarithromycin-loaded pumpkin seed oil-based nanoemulsion remarkably diminished the viability of all tested cell lines, compared to either plain clarithromycin or plank pumpkin seed oil nanoemulsion. In addition, incorporating clarithromycin within pumpkin seed oil-based nanoemulsion synergistically augmented the cytotoxic efficacy of clarithromycin against various cancer cell lines via advocating considerable cell cycle arrest with subsequent elicitation of potent apoptotic response. These results support the potential use of clarithromycin in cancer therapy, and merit future translational research.

Elucidation of synergistic interactions between anionic polysaccharides and hemp seed protein isolate and their functionalities in stabilizing the hemp seed oil-based nanoemulsion

This study aimed to enhance the physical stability of hemp seed oil (HSO) nanoemulsions stabilized by hemp seed protein isolate (HPI)-polysaccharides (carrageenan, alginate, gum arabic and pectin) complexes. Extensive investigations were conducted to evaluate the surface charge characteristics of HPI and polysaccharides, along with an assessment of their binding strength and complex formation. The researchers also examined various influential factors such as polysaccharide type and concentration, nanoemulsion droplet size and charge, environmental stresses, shearing rate, and creaming stability on the HSO nanoemulsions stabilized using HPI-polysaccharide emulsifiers. The results demonstrated that the main influencing parameters were polysaccharide type and concentration. In addition, all HPI (0.5% (w/v)-polysaccharide (0.01% (w/v)) nanoemulsions exhibited significant resistance to droplet aggregation and creaming, even under thermal treatment (≤100 °C). This stability can be attributed to the synergistic effects of the mixed emulsifiers with opposite surface charges, which resulted in nanoemulsions with a positive charge under optimal pH conditions (pH = 3 for carrageenan and 3.5 for other polysaccharides) due to repulsive forces between droplets. Notably, only the HPI-alginate nanoemulsion reveals stability across all salt levels (≤ 500 mM), while the other nanoemulsions remained stable solely at low NaCl concentrations (≤ 200 mM). This exceptional stability can be attributed to the alginate flexibility and formation of a compact complex between HPI at the surface of the nanoemulsion droplets. This study's findings carry significant implications for the food and beverage industries, especially regarding the use of HPI as a functional food ingredient. Furthermore, HPI-alginate nanoemulsions offer great potential as alternative encapsulation materials.

Characterization of polysaccharide from Lonicera japonica Thunb leaves and its application in nano-emulsion.

The polysaccharides in honeysuckle leaves (PHL) were separated and characterized for the first time. The nano-emulsion stabilized by PHL and whey protein isolate (WPI) were also fabricated based on the ultrasonic method. The results indicated that PHL was mainly composed of glucose (47.40 mol%), galactose (19.21 mol%) and arabinose (20.21 mol%) with the weight-average molecular weight of 137.97 ± 4.31 kDa. The emulsifier concentration, WPI-to-PHL ratio, ultrasound power and ultrasound time had significant influence on the droplet size of PHL-WPI nano-emulsion. The optimal preparation conditions were determined as following: emulsifier concentration, 1.7%; WPI/PHL ratio, 3:1; ultrasonic power, 700 W; ultrasonic time, 7 min. Under the above conditions, the median diameter of the obtained nano-emulsion was 317.70 ± 5.26 nm, close to the predicted value of 320.20 nm. The protective effect of PHL-WPI emulsion on β-carotene against UV irradiation was superior to that of WPI emulsion. Our results can provide reference for the development of honeysuckle leaves.

Nanoemulsions as medicinal components in insoluble medicines

Background: Medicine’s success relies on solubility, which is the process of dissolving a solid substance in a fluid phase to create a uniform molecular dispersion. However, hydrophobic active medicinal components exhibit poor solubility in water, limiting their effectiveness and incorporation into medications. Aim: This review explores the potential of nanoemulsions as a solution for delivering hydrophobic medicinal components with low solubility. The study investigates the benefits of nanoemulsions, including enhanced absorption, effective targeting, controlled release, and protection of encapsulated bioactive ingredients. Materials and methods: Nanoemulsions are formulated by combining two immiscible liquids with emulsifying agents within a thermodynamically stable colloidal dispersion system. The review categorizes various preparation techniques into high-energy and low-energy spontaneous emulsification methods. The choice of preparation procedures and materials used significantly affects the stability of nanoemulsions over time. Evaluation of nanoemulsions includes studying medication release in vitro, in vitro permeation, stability and thermodynamic stability, shelf life, viscosity, interfacial tension, pH, and osmolarity. Results: Nanoemulsions, such as Celecoxib (Phase Inversion), acetylsalicylic acid (Ultrasonication), and Flurbiprofen (Homogenization and Ultrasonication), offer distinct advantages for medications with low solubility compared to conventional emulsions. These nanoemulsions comprise small droplets with a larger surface area, promoting enhanced absorption. They demonstrate effective targeting, controlled release, and protection of encapsulated bioactive ingredients. Moreover, the diminutive droplet sizes of nanoemulsions contribute to their reduced susceptibility to issues like flocculation, coalescence, sedimentation, or creaming. Conclusion: Nanoemulsions hold great promise in overcoming the solubility limitations of hydrophobic medicinal components. They provide enhanced absorption, effective targeting, controlled release, and protection of bioactive ingredients. The choice of preparation techniques and materials plays a crucial role in ensuring the stability of nanoemulsions over time. Further studies are warranted to optimize their use and explore their potential applications in drug delivery systems.

The garlic extract-loaded nanoemulsion: Study of physicochemical, rheological, and antimicrobial properties and its application in mayonnaise.

In this research, garlic extract (GE)-loaded water-in-oil nanoemulsion was used as a novel preservative and antioxidant in mayonnaise. GE (5%, 10%, 15%, and 25%) as a dispersed phase, olive oil as a continuous phase, and polyglycerol polyricinoleate (PGPR) as a low HLB surfactant, with a constant surfactant/garlic extract ratio (1:1), were used in the formulations of water-in-oil nanoemulsions. The properties of the active nanoemulsion, including droplet size, free radical scavenging capacity, antimicrobial activity against gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus [25923 ATCC]), and gram-negative (Escherichia coli H7 O157 [700728 ATCC]) were evaluated. The results showed that the mean droplet size of nanoemulsion increased from 62 to 302 nm and antioxidant capacity was also improved from 95.43% to 98.25% by increasing GE level from 5% to 25%. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) showed that antimicrobial activity against S. aureus could be observed only in high levels of GE (25%) in the formulation of nanoemulsion. The results of the total count analysis showed that the GE-loaded nanoemulsion (NEGE) was effective against the microorganisms, particularly after 4 months of storage. The incorporation of GE and NEGE did not affect significantly the acidity of different mayonnaise samples; however, they affected the concentration of the primary product of lipid oxidation. Adding GE and NGE did not significantly affect the rheological properties of mayonnaise and all samples showed shear-thinning behavior. Sensory evaluation showed that the samples with NEGE had higher scores in texture, spreadability, and mouthfeel, while the control samples had better scores in appearance, color, taste, and total acceptance. In general, the samples containing free GE (not encapsulated) had the lowest scores in all organoleptic characteristics.

Characteristics and Physical Stability of Nanoemulsion as a Vehicle for Anti-Aging Cosmetics: A Systematic Review

Background: Skin aging can be overcome by applying anti-aging cosmetics. Many active ingredients that have anti-aging potential are derived from plants, and these materials must be delivered with a sound skin delivery system, namely nanoemulsion. The characteristics of nanoemulsion are closely related to physical stability. Objective: This study aims to conduct a systematic review of in vivo and in vitro study designs to examine the characteristics and physical stability of nanoemulsions used in topical anti-aging cosmetics. Methods: A systematic literature review based on the PRISMA statement was used to review the articles regarding nanoemulsions’ characteristics and physical stability. The article search was accessed from an internet search database: Scopus, Pubmed, and Web of Science, published between January 2012 and June 2022. Results: Of the 244 articles, 44 were found to be related to the characteristics and physical stability of nanoemulsions in anti-aging cosmetics. These showed that active ingredients with antioxidant activity, filter UV rays, moisturizing agents, and cell-repairing agents are delivered by a nanoemulsion system with various types and ratios of surfactants, cosurfactants, and oil phases. Tween 80, Span 80, Transcutol HP, and Caprylic/capric triglyceride are the most widely used nanoemulsion compositions. Conclusion: The type and composition of the oil phase, surfactant, and cosurfactant affect the characteristics of the nanoemulsion (droplet size, polydispersity index, viscosity, zeta potential) and the physical stability of the nanoemulsion so that it can deliver active ingredients that have the potential as anti-aging well.

Fabrication of nano-encapsulated angelica (Heracleum persicum) essential oil for enriching dairy dessert: Physicochemical, rheological and sensorial properties.

In this study, the nanoemulsions containing angelica essential oil (AEO) was used as a novel nano-carrier for enrichment of dairy dessert. Firstly, oil-in-water nanoemulsions were prepared by different levels of GE (1%, 5%, 10%, and 15%) as the dispersed phase, Tween 80 as surfactant with a constant surfactant to essential oil ratio (1:1), and distillated water as a continuous phase. Droplet size, free radical scavenging capacity, antimicrobial activity against gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus (25923 ATCC)) and gram-negative (Escherichia coli H7 O157 (700728 ATCC)) were evaluated for produced nanoemulsions. The mean droplet size of nanoemulsion increased from 75 to 95nm and antioxidant capacity also enhanced from 15.4% to 30.2% by increasing AEO level from 1% to 15%. Antimicrobial analysis by disk diffusion methods for nanoemulsions containing different levels of AEO cleared that nanoemulsions with high levels of AEO showed the stronger antimicrobial activity against both used bacteria and especially more activity against Staphylococcus aureus. The results of the total count and yeast and mould count show that the nanoemulsions with different levels of AEO have been effective on the number of microorganisms, particularly during storage. The incorporation of pure essential oil and nanoemulsions with different levels of AEO did not affect significantly the pH of different dessert samples however, they affected the dry matter and free radical scavenging capacity. Adding of nanoemulsions with different levels of AEO to the desserts had a considerable effect on the rheological properties including apparent viscosity, G', G", Tan δ and complex viscosity and all samples showed shear-thining behaviour. Results from organoleptic characteristics (taste, odour colour, mouthfeel and total acceptance) showed that enriched samples by nanoemulsions, particularly with higher level of AEO had higher sensorial scores. In general, samples containing free AEO (not encapsulated) had the lower scores in all organoleptic characteristics.

Characterisation and microbial activity of neem oil nano-emulsions formulated by phase inversion temperature method

This study has been carried out to prepare neem oil-in-water nano-emulsions stabilized by Brij 30 surfactant using the phase inversion temperature (PIT) method at three different temperatures, i.e., 60, 75 and 80°C. Compositions of homogenous phase have been identified in the pseudo-ternary phase diagram. Among the total seventeen formulations, three formulations (NB1, NB2 and NB3) have been short-listed and characterized for emulsion size and viscosity. The selected formulations have shown emulsion size of 348-981 nm in diameter. The volume percentage ratio of Brij 30 to neem oil have shown significant effect on the droplet size of nano-emulsions. Formulations having lower concentration of Brij 30 have displayed a smaller emulsion droplet size (348 nm). The NB3 formulation (4% neem oil, 11% Brij 30 and 85% deionized water) has exhibited the highest stability after 60 days of storage. Antimicrobial study has shown that in contrast to raw neem and Ampicillin (synthetic drug), NB1 exhibited best result in terms of minimum inhibition concentration (MIC) reduction by 100% against E-coli, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus and S. pyogenus.

Fabrication, assessment, and optimization of alendronate sodium nanoemulsion-based injectable in-situ gel formulation for management of osteoporosis

Low bone mass, degeneration of bone tissue, and disruption of bone microarchitecture are all symptoms of the disease osteoporosis, which can decrease bone strength and increase the risk of fractures. The main objective of the current study was to use a phospholipid-based phase separation in-situ gel (PPSG) in combination with an alendronate sodium nanoemulsion (ALS-NE) to help prevent bone resorption in rats. The effect of factors such as concentrations of the ALS aqueous solution, surfactant Plurol Oleique CC 497, and Maisine CC oil on nanoemulsion characteristics such as stability index and globular size was investigated using an l-optimal coordinate exchange statistical design. Injectable PPSG with the best nanoemulsion formulation was tested for viscosity, gel strength, water absorption, and in-vitro ALS release. ALS retention in the rats’ muscles was measured after 30 days. The droplet size and stability index of the optimal nanoemulsion were 90 ± 2.0 nm and 85 ± 1.9%, respectively. When mixed with water, the optimal ALS-NE–loaded PPSG became viscous and achieved 36 seconds of gel strength, which was adequate for an injectable in-situ formulation. In comparison with the ALS solution–loaded in-situ gel, the newly created optimal ALS-NE–loaded PPSG produced the sustained and regulated release of ALS; hence, a higher percentage of ALS remained in rats’ muscles after 30 days. PPSG that has been loaded with an ALS-NE may therefore be a more auspicious, productive, and effective platform for osteoporosis treatment than conventional oral forms.

Changes in Emulsifying Properties, Droplet Size, Turbidity and Lipid Oxidation of Pea Protein Nanoemulsions Exposed to High-Intensity Ultrasound and High-Pressure Homogenization during Storage

The current work was conducted to explore the influence of two non-thermal technologies (high pressure homogenization (HPH) and high-intensity ultrasound (HIU)) on emulsifying properties, droplet size, turbidity and lipid oxidation of pea protein-stabilized nanoemulsions (PPNs) during seven days of storage. The smallest droplet size (198.3 nm) was obtained for the samples exposed to 10 min HIU at 100% amplitude among all treatments. The same sample also showed the least lipid oxidation (98 mmol/kg) during storage. There was a positive relationship between droplet size and turbidity values. All HIU-treated PPNs exhibited less turbidity and smaller droplet size where the control PPN samples demonstrated the most turbid structure (4.05) with the biggest droplet size (413.9 nm). Similar positive relationship was also found between the variables of droplet size and lipid oxidation. All HIU-treated PPNs exhibited less lipid oxidation and smaller droplet size where the control PPNs demonstrated the most lipid oxidation with the biggest droplet size. Last but not least, among the treatments, the PPNs exposed to 10 min HIU at 100% amplitude showed the highest emulsifying activity index (EAI, 212 m2g-1) and emulsifying stability index (ESI, 59 min), whereas the PPNs with no treatment showed the lowest EAI (69 m2g-1) and ESI (21 min).

Preparation of Fucoxanthin Nanoemulsion Stabilized by Natural Emulsifiers: Fucoidan, Sodium Caseinate, and Gum Arabic.

This study was proposed to investigate the possibility of O/W nanoemulsion stabilization via natural emulsifiers as a delivery system for fucoxanthin. Nanoemulsions were prepared using ultrasonic treatment (150 W, amplitude 80%, 10 min) with different levels (0.5%, 1%, and 2% wt) of fucoidan, gum Arabic, and sodium caseinate as natural emulsifires and they were compared with tween 80. Then, the creaming index, stability, encapsulation efficacy, Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, and in vitro release were evaluated. The best stability and lowest creaming index were observed at 2% wt of emulsifiers. Nanoemulsions with droplet sizes (113.27–127.50 nm) and zeta potentials (−32.27 to −58.87 mV) were prepared. The droplet size of nanoemulsions was reduced by increasing the emulsifier concentration, and the best nanoemulsion stability after 15 days of storage was in the following order: tween 80 > sodium caseinate > fucoidan > gum Arabic. The encapsulation efficacy of nanoemulsions stabilized by sodium caseinate, fucoidan, and gum Arabic were 88.51 ± 0.11%, 79.32 ± 0.09%, and 60.34 ± 0.13%, respectively. The in vitro gastrointestinal fucoxanthin release of nanoemulsion stabilized with tween 80, sodium caseinate, fucoidan, and gum Arabic were 85.14 ± 0.16%, 76.91 ± 0.34%, 71.41 ± 0.14%, and 68.98 ± 0.36%, respectively. The release of fucoxanthin from nanoemulsions followed Fickian diffusion. The FTIR also confirmed the encapsulation of fucoxanthin.

Physicochemical Characteristics of Mixed Surfactant-Stabilized l-Ascorbic Acid Nanoemulsions during Storage.

The incorporation of l-ascorbic acid into food products is challenging for food industries due to its chemical instability. This study was conducted to develop a nanoemulsion-based effective colloidal system for the incorporation of l-ascorbic acid (LAA) in functional food products. l-ascorbic acid was encapsulated in nanoemulsions prepared through high-pressure homogenization. The physicochemical characteristics of mixed-surfactant-based LAA nanoemulsions were investigated during storage at different temperatures. The droplet size of LAA nanoemulsions after one month of storage varied in the range of 121.36-150.15 and 121.36-138.25 nm at 25 and 4 °C, respectively. These nanoemulsions remained stable against processing conditions such as heat treatments (10-70 °C), different salt concentrations (40-320 mM), change in pH (3-9), and four freeze-thaw cycles. The temperature and storage intervals have a significant (p < 0.05) effect on the retention of LAA in nanoemulsion-based delivery systems. The findings of this research work have important implications in the designing and preparation of an effective encapsulation system for the inclusion of l-ascorbic acid into functional food products.