Driving Performance Score Research Articles

From fear to forecast: The role of simulators, accompanied driving, age, gender, and information-processing style in driver training and beyond

BackgroundEven though accompanied driving and simulator training are common, clarity on their usage trends and effectiveness is lacking. This research aimed to deepen the understanding of the relationships between personal characteristics, pre-licence accompanied driving, self-reported post-licence driving behaviour, and driving performance scores during simulator lessons. MethodsWe used data from a questionnaire completed by simulator and non-simulator students (total n = 3,761). Data were analysed by dividing the sample into two groups based on variables such as gender, age at licensure, education level, fear of driving a car when starting driver education, information-processing style, participation in accompanied driving, and the number of driving simulator lessons completed. ResultsMales took fewer on-road lessons and reported lower fear, but they had poorer simulator safety scores than females. Younger learners required fewer lessons and test attempts, were less fearful, and violated traffic rules more than older respondents. Higher-educated respondents had more fear and safer driving scores in the simulator. Thinkers, who were typically more educated, showed more caution in the simulator and on the road, and were older at licensure. Compared to regular students, students participating in accompanied driving were younger at licensure. Moreover, students with a higher driving skill score in the simulator were less fearful and needed slightly fewer attempts to pass the road driving test. Discussion and conclusionThe fear towards driving, which is strongly linked to personal characteristics, provides a logical explanation for the progression of students through driver education. Furthermore, this study illustrated the possibility of considering information-processing styles, education level, and driving simulator performance in driving education. However, in order to conclusively study the safety-effectiveness of accompanied driving and simulator training, further research in the form of a randomised controlled trial is necessary.

Personalized driving safety: Using telematics to reduce risky driving behavior among young drivers

Introduction: The role of real-time data capture (via telematics technology) is gathering prominence as a strategy to provide feedback to young drivers about important road safety issues. Method: A naturalistic driving study was undertaken to determine whether providing personalized feedback (via a smartphone app) to young provisional drivers aged 17–20 years living in metropolitan and regional Western Australia (WA) reduced their risky driving behavior compared to a control group who did not receive feedback. Speeding over the posted speed limit, harsh decelerations (braking), harsh accelerations and overall driving performance, were recorded continuously using the smartphone app during the 11-week study. Four separate Generalised Estimating Equations (GEE) linear regression models were undertaken after accounting for relevant confounders including driving exposure to determine the difference between the intervention and control group for the 4 driving outcomes obtained from the smartphone app. Results: The study found that there was no significant change in overall driving scores between the intervention and control groups (p = 0.35). However, the overall driving score significantly improved by 0.19 points for young provisional drivers who lived in regional areas compared to those in the metropolitan area (p = 0.05) after adjusting for potential confounders. There was also no significant change in harsh braking scores (p = 0.46) and harsh acceleration scores between the intervention and control groups (p = 0.26) However, harsh acceleration scores improved by 0.37 points for females compared to males (p = 0.04). Lastly, there was no significant change in speed scores between the control and intervention groups (p = 0.72). However, the speed scores of participants who lived in regional WA improved by 0.22 points compared to those in the metropolitan area (p = 0.02). Furthermore, for every 1,000 km travelled, speed scores worsened by −0.08 points (p < 0.01) regardless of group. Conclusions: The study did not find any statistical difference in the driving outcomes examined; however the treatment effects for feedback were consistently in the expected positive direction. Young drivers in regional WA also improved their speeding scores and overall driving performance scores compared to young drivers in the metropolitan area. Females, also significantly improved their harsh deceleration scores compared to males, regardless of group allocation. These results highlight the use of smartphone telematics as an opportunity to not only enhance the safety of provisional young drivers but also provide data-informed decision making and policy development.

Comparison of the effects of alcohol and cannabis on visual function and driving performance. Does the visual impairment affect driving?

BackgroundAlcohol and cannabis are the most widely consumed psychoactive substances worldwide. This study compared the effects of alcohol and cannabis on visual function and driving performance, as well as self-perceived effects. Also, the relationship between visual effects under the influence and driving performance was studied. MethodsSixty-four young drivers, with a history of alcohol and/or cannabis use were included. Of these, 33 were allocated to the alcohol group and 31 to the cannabis group. All participants were evaluated in a baseline session. The alcohol group underwent two sessions: after drinking 300 ml and 450 ml of red wine (A1 and A2). The cannabis group attended one session after smoking cannabis (C). Visual function was evaluated at the contrast sensitivity, stereoacuity, and intraocular straylight level. Participants drove a driving simulator. A general score (overall visual score, OVS; overall driving performance score, ODPS) was obtained for both visual functioning and driving performance. ResultsThe evaluation of visual function demonstrated a significant impairment in OVS for all conditions studied (A1, p = 0.005; A2, p < 0.001; C, p < 0.001) with respect to the baseline session. General driving performance (ODPS) demonstrated a significant worsening for the A2 condition (p = 0.003). Finally, a significant relationship between driving performance and visual function was found (rho=0.163, p = 0.039 and χ2 = 4.801, p = 0.028). ConclusionsCannabis and alcohol use negatively impact visual function. However, driving performance was only significantly affected by the higher alcohol dose. This impairment in visual function was significantly associated with worse driving performance.

Investigating the P300 Response as a Marker of Working Memory in Virtual Training Environments

Conventional performance metrics fail to offer high-resolution evaluation of learning and memory during training tasks; the P300 component of the event-related potential (ERP) is a promising tool for enhancing the assessment of training quality in virtual environments, but this technique is yet to be investigated. A driver training simulator and scenario were developed to explore the capability of the P300 for this purpose. A user study was conducted with 32 participants divided into two groups objectively determined by driving performance scores, thus enabling observations of the P300 response to be equated to varying levels of learning and memory. Participant electroencephalogram data were recorded during the procedure, which was postprocessed to filter and extract ERPs to capture neural responses to specific events in the virtual training scenario. These were combined to produce a result for each participant, which was then grand averaged to create an overall ERP for each group. Across the eight electrode sites, statistically significant differences were found between the grand average waveforms of the two groups, with high memory retention producing significantly greater peak-to-peak amplitude (U = 9.00, p = 0.045), peak latency (U = 0.00, p $<; $ 0.001), and positive area (U = 13.00, p = 0.05) of the waveform than low memory retention. The evidenced relationship between the P300 response and working memory in this context suggests that it has the potential for monitoring learning and memory in stimulus-driven virtual training systems.

Disability glare and nighttime driving performance among commercial drivers in Ghana.

ObjectiveGlare caused by the headlights of on‐coming vehicles risk safe driving at night. The study aimed to determine the relationship between glare exposure and nighttime driving performance among commercial drivers in Ghana.MethodsThis cross‐sectional study involved commercial drivers with complaints of nighttime driving difficulties (N = 80; mean age = 41.5 ± 11.1 years). A questionnaire was used to investigate nighttime driving performance following glare exposure. We measured contrast sensitivity and visual acuity under photopic conditions. With an experimental setup in a mesopic setting, we measured visual acuity with and without glare exposure. The difference between the two mesopic visual acuities was quantified as disability glare index. With the same setup, photostress recovery time was also measured. Regression analyses were used to determine the relationship between nighttime driving performance score and the measures taken in both photopic and mesopic settings.ResultsThe average nighttime driving performance score was 47.8 ± 17.5. Driving performance was negatively correlated with all variables (R = –0.87 to –0.30, all p < .01), except contrast sensitivity (R = 0.74, p < .01). A multiple linear regression showed that the model with all variables explained 83.8% of the variance, but only disability glare index was a significant predictor of nighttime driving performance following glare exposure (standardized B = –0.61, p < .01).ConclusionOur results show that the change in mesopic visual acuities following glare can predict nighttime driving performance. This measure can be incorporated into the assessment of driving fitness by licensing departments to evaluate whether a person can drive safely at night amidst glare exposure.

Driving mental workload and performance of ageing drivers

The World Health Organization stated that the global ageing population is increasing rapidly as well as the case of road accidents involving ageing drivers. This study presents the driving mental workload and performance model of ageing drivers in the context of real-time road driving. Twenty paid participants (ten males) with a mean age of 57.8 years old (SD = 2.7) and mean driving experience of 29.6 years (SD = 8.5) took part in driving experiments with three complexity levels of situation: simple situation (SS), moderately complex situation (MCS), and very complex situation (VCS). The subjective ratings using NASA Task Load Index (NASA-TLX), physiological measure using electroencephalogram, number of traffic violations (NTVs), speed variability, and reaction time of peripheral detection task were measured. The driving experiments reveal the following: (1) The subjective workload ratings on mean physical demand score were the highest. (2) The electroencephalogram results show that situation complexity had significant effects on theta relative power and alpha relative power of two channel locations (3) The highest mean NTVs was in VCS. (4) The mean speed variability in the MCS was significantly lower than that of in the SS and VCS. (5) The maximum reaction time was recorded in VCS while the minimum reaction time was recorded in the MCS. The overall driving performance score regression models were developed based on the strong correlation and linear relationship between mental workload and driving performance elements. The models may benefit as a reference for designers, manufacturers, developers, and policymakers in designing better driving environment for ageing drivers by integrating safety and transportation, thus, optimizing and sustaining the driving performance of ageing drivers.

Investigating the Correlation between Driver’s Characteristics and Safety Performance

This research aims to correlate drivers’ characteristics with their safety performance. In order to achieve this objective, two different data sets were used deriving from 12 drivers who participated on an on-road driving experiment while being assessed by a safety behaviour expert. Drivers participating in the experiment also responded to the questionnaire administered, which mainly included self-evaluation questions along with other that concerned the condition of their vehicle, demographics, driving experience etc. The analysis of drivers’ behavior was carried out using the statistical methods of factor analysis and linear regression analysis. Three groups that characterize drivers’ perception of careless, aggressive and cautious driving behavior were derived from factor analysis. Moreover, linear regression analysis revealed that driving experience, headways, self-reported driving skill and defensive driving positively affect the overall on-road driving performance score. More precisely, it was ascertained that driving experience leads to statistically significant increase in overall on-road driving performance score. Other factors such as defensive driving and keeping safe distances from other vehicles. The findings of this research could be exploited for providing feedback on drivers regarding their driving behavior in order to further reduce their driving risk.

Randomized Crossover Trial Evaluating the Impact of Senofilcon A Photochromic Lens on Driving Performance.

SIGNIFICANCEThe first contact lens to incorporate a photochromic additive was cleared by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration last year. Because any ophthalmic lens that absorbs visible wavelengths will reduce retinal illuminance, it is important to understand the impact of this new photochromic contact lens on vision and both daytime and nighttime driving performance.PURPOSEThe purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of senofilcon A photochromic contact lens wear on vision and driving performance under real-world conditions by comparison with a nonphotochromic contact lens and plano photochromic spectacles.METHODSIn this randomized four-visit bilateral crossover study, 24 licensed regular drivers and established wearers of soft contact lenses were enrolled. Subjects wore in random order each of three study lens types: the investigational photochromic soft contact lens (test), a nonphotochromic soft contact lens (control 1), and plano photochromic spectacle lenses (control 2). Driver performance was assessed on a closed-circuit driving track under challenging controlled conditions. The primary endpoint was overall driving performance score calculated as a composite Z score of six objective metrics.RESULTSAll 24 subjects (mean age, 29.8 years) completed the study. For nighttime driving, the adjusted mean differences in Z score (95% confidence interval) between test and control 1 and between test and control 2 were 0.069 (−0.045 to +0.183) and 0.117 (0.003 to 0.231), respectively. For daytime driving, mean differences were 0.101 (−0.013 to +0.216) between test and control 1 and 0.044 (−0.070 to +0.158) between test and control 2. Results demonstrated noninferiority of the test lens relative to controls for nighttime and daytime driving performance using a noninferiority margin of −0.25 Z score. Noninferiority was also demonstrated on all logMAR and contrast threshold testing. No adverse events were reported during the study.CONCLUSIONSStudy results revealed no evidence of concerns with either driving performance or vision while wearing photochromic contact lenses.

Older drivers' self-reported vision-related night-driving difficulties and night-driving performance.

To investigate associations between older drivers' perceived vision-related night-driving difficulties and night-time driving performance measured on a closed-road circuit. Participants included 26 older drivers (71.8±6.3years) who reported vision-related night-driving difficulties assessed with the vision and night driving questionnaire (VND-Q). High-contrast, photopic visual acuity (VA) and ratings of discomfort glare (de Boer scale) were also assessed. Night-time driving performance was measured on a closed-road circuit that involved recognition, hazard avoidance and lane-keeping tasks in the absence and presence of intermittent glare. Generalized linear mixed models investigated the relationship between VND-Q scores and overall driving performance scores, as well as with discomfort glare ratings and VA. Greater levels of vision-related night-driving difficulties (VND-Q scores) were significantly associated with poorer night-driving performance (p=0.003); the association was even stronger for driving performance in the presence of intermittent glare (p=0.001). Reduced VA was associated with poorer night-driving performance (p=0.022) but the association was weaker than for the VND-Q scores. In contrast, ratings of discomfort glare were not significantly associated with driving performance (p=0.14). The VND-Q was significantly associated with night-time driving performance and provides a useful instrument for assessing vision-related night-driving difficulties which can be incorporated into clinical vision assessments.

Cognitive function and driving in middle adulthood: Does age matter?

ObjectiveThere is an established relationship in the literature between cognitive function and driving performance in older drivers and new evidence suggests that this relationship also exists in younger drivers. Given this, it follows that this relationship may exist for all drivers, however the relationship between cognitive function and driving in drivers in middle adulthood has not yet been examined. The current study therefore aims to examine this relationship of overall cognitive function and driving, as well as the individual cognitive domains relevant to driving for drivers in middle adulthood. MethodThe participants were 89 drivers aged between 25 and 65 years. Each participant was assessed on a battery of cognitive tests and completed a drive on a driving simulator. Measures of driving performance included speeding, lane deviation, and an overall driving performance score. ResultsThe results showed new evidence to suggest overall cognitive function can predict speeding and overall driving performance. In addition, the cognitive domains of mental status, executive function and memory were found to be significant individual predictors in this cohort. ConclusionsTaken together with previous findings, this study provides evidence to suggest that cognitive function is important to driving across the lifespan. The generalisability of the current results are limited due to the majority of participants being from a university sample, therefore these findings will need to be replicated in a more representative sample. Future research should focus on the development of a comprehensive model to explain driving performance across all ages and across traffic psychology disciplines.

Nighttime Driving in Older Adults: Effects of Glare and Association With Mesopic Visual Function.

To examine the associations between nighttime driving performance of older drivers and photopic, mesopic, and glare-based tests of visual function. Participants included 26 older drivers (71.8 ± 6.3 years), with minimal or no eye disease, but who reported vision-related nighttime driving difficulties. Nighttime driving performance was assessed on a closed-road circuit, which included intermittent glare. An overall driving performance score was calculated based on detection of signs, pedestrians, wooden animals and road markings, lane-keeping, and avoidance of low contrast hazards. Visual function tests included photopic and mesopic visual acuity (VA) and contrast sensitivity (CS). Tests of glare (Berkeley Glare and Aston Halometer) and mesopic motion sensitivity were also assessed. Regression analyses were used to explore the associations between these vision measures and nighttime driving performance. The overall driving performance score was significantly reduced by intermittent glare (P = 0.002); notably, pedestrian detection decreased by 38% in the presence of intermittent glare (P < 0.001). Overall driving scores were most strongly associated with motion sensitivity (P = 0.001) and mesopic high contrast VA (P = 0.002), rather than photopic or glare-based tests. Motion sensitivity accounted for more than twice the variation in driving performance compared to photopic high contrast VA (29% vs. 14%). Glare reduced several aspects of nighttime driving performance. Mesopic tests of visual function, including motion sensitivity and mesopic high contrast VA, were more strongly associated with nighttime driving performance than photopic high-contrast VA. These results highlight the potential importance of nonstandard vision tests for assessing older drivers' visual capacity to drive at night.

Effect of activities of daily living status on resuming driving after stroke.

[Purpose] This study aimed to investigate the effect of the activities of daily living status on resuming driving after stroke. [Subjects] Thirty-one participants with stroke, who visited in Korean national rehabilitation centers, were included in this study. [Methods] The activities of daily living performance and the driving ability of the participants were assessed with the Korean-Modified Barthel Index in combination with the results obtained by using a driving simulator. [Results] Significant correlations were noted among the Korean-Modified Barthel Index, on-road driving total score, reaction time, speed anticipation tests, judgment tests, and steering wheel-pedal operation tests. Results of Stepwise multiple regression also revealed that the Korean-Modified Barthel Index total score and speed anticipation, with an R2 of 52.9%. In other words, as the Korean-Modified Barthel Index total score and speed anticipation score increased and the driving performance score also increased in patients who had suffered a stroke. [Conclusion] The activities of daily living status was positively correlated with the patients’ post stroke driving ability.

The Effect of the Global Positioning System on the Driving Performance of People with Mild Alzheimer's Disease

Introduction: The initial symptoms of Alzheimer's disease (AD) include attention deficits, memory loss and deficiencies in topographic and spatial orientation. People with AD may have way-finding difficulties in driving due to the deterioration of their navigation ability. Although the use of the Global Positioning System (GPS) has been proven to be a useful aid for older people in driving, there is no evidence to suggest that the benefit could extend to drivers with AD. Aim: This study aims to investigate the effectiveness of the GPS in assisting drivers with mild AD in finding their destination safely. Method: Twenty-eight drivers with mild to very mild AD, diagnosed by a general practitioner or a psychogeriatrician, completed all clinical and psychometric assessments including the Mini Mental State Examination, Trail Making Test B and Doors and People Test. During the driving assessment, 3 driving trials with different settings (normal, visual-only and audio-only) of the GPS were administered to all participants. The participants were required to follow instructions from the GPS and perform a variety of driving tasks on a driving simulator. The driving performances of participants were assessed by criteria specific to AD drivers. The driving assessment criteria were first combined to form the overall driving performance score: a higher score indicated a better overall driving performance. The other outcome of this study was the success of participants to navigate to a predetermined destination. Results: The driving performance of participants was different among the 3 settings (F = 72.8, p < 0.001) and the pairwise comparison between the 3 settings was significant (p < 0.001). The driving performance score was highest in the audio-only setting (mean: 20.0, SD: 2.2), moderate in the normal setting (mean: 16.7, SD: 2.6) and lowest in the visual-only setting (mean: 14.3, SD: 3.3). When compared with the visual-only setting, drivers using the audio-only setting (OR: 37.2, 95% CI: 9.2-151.2) and normal setting (OR: 37.2, 95% CI: 4.8-286.9) were more likely to successfully find their destination (p < 0.05). Conclusion: This study has found that using single, simple auditory instructions with the absence of the visual output of the GPS could potentially help people with mild AD to improve their driving ability and reach their destination.

Assistive technologies for older adults with Alzheimer's disease: the Lusage user-lab experience

Background: The goals of this study are to critically review and analyze currently employed road test designs from published research studies involving cognitively impaired older drivers in order to define potential improvements that would enhance reliability, accuracy and validity. Methods: A literature review is complemented by detailed analyses of selected road test studies fromBrown andWashington Universities. We examine 1) inter-rater reliability of driving instructors from different geographic regions, 2) weighting bias by driving instructors in forming global impressions, 3) weighting of individual road test items by the instructors in forming global impressions, and 4) comparisons of road test and naturalistic home driving components using factor analysis.Results: Driving performance scores for videotaped home driving epochs by two driving instructors were modestly correlated. Differences in global impressions were partially attributable to the items of driving ability that were emphasized. Road test scores were unidimensional and reflected by a major factor related to awareness of signage and traffic behavior, while naturalistic home driving reflected two factors related to lane keeping as well as traffic behavior. Conclusions: Despite differences in geography and local driving regulations and practices, we have demonstrated that road test courses and driving examination scales can be harmonized; however, refinement in this area is still needed. Further improvements could include development of nationwide standards for scoring methodology for driving examiners, as well as road courses that incorporate the special challenges to examining the older driver in a more naturalistic and valid way.

Development of a Behind-the-Wheel Driving Performance Assessment for Older Adults

Many driving rehabilitation specialists and researchers have emphasized the “on-road” driving assessment as the most appropriate method to determine driving performance. Difficulty arises with consensus surrounding the standardization of the clinical assessment and on-road assessment protocols. This research was designed to evaluate the psychometric properties and clinical utility of a standardized method for behind-the-wheel (BTW) driving assessment for older adults. Ninety-five older adults from the Gainesville, Fla, area were assessed for BTW performance by driving rehabilitation specialists. A global rating (criterion) of overall driving competence was correlated with an objective performance score. The global rating was found to be significantly correlated with the driving performance score (r = 0.84, P < .001). Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) were calculated for interrater (0.94) and test-retest (0.95) reliability for the performance score. Internal consistency for the BTW assessment was 0.94. These assessment methods and the course design provide a valid and reliable outcome measure of driving performance for older adults.

Assessment of older drivers: Relationships among on-road errors, medical conditions and test outcome

Problem: It is essential that driver licensing authorities have a valid and reliable system for evaluating older drivers' continuing competency; road tests are usually required as part of such a system. This study sought to find information about the nature of driving errors made during license review tests, and about relationships between error type and test outcome for older drivers. Method: Data from licensing authority files from 533 road tests during a 12-month period were analyzed; medical and other referral information was included. Average driver age was 76 years. Performance scores were generated for intersection negotiation, lane changing, low speed manoeuvres, positioning and speed control, safety margin, and car control. Results: Logistic regression analysis showed that test outcome was well predicted by a subset of driving performance scores; adding driver age to the model explained very little variance. Age alone was strongly associated with outcome. Relationships between referral information and test outcome are also reported. Impact: Results highlight several factors relevant to the development of more valid and reliable road tests for older drivers.

Development of a Test Protocol to Demonstrate the Effects of Secondary Tasks on Closed-Course Driving Performance

To assess the relative distraction potential associated with a variety of in-vehicle tasks, we developed a test protocol that provides an objective basis for demonstrating the tradeoffs between primary and secondary task performance in driving. The protocol includes two summary scores, one representing driving performance and one representing secondary-task performance. Driving performance was evaluated on a 1.3-mile test course, which included straight and curved road segments, a signalized intersection, a simulated work zone, two changeable-message signs, and six unexpected events. Secondary tasks included mental arithmetic, reading, writing, phone dialing, CD changing, route-guidance destination entry, eating, drinking and grooming. Twelve subjects drove an instrumented vehicle for 9 or 10 timed laps of the test course, each while performing a different secondary task or none (baseline). On average, we found a 15% decrement in driving performance scores on laps in which subjects engaged in a secondary task. Driving performance decrements were observed on 88% of these trials. Differences were observed between different secondary tasks. The pilot test results demonstrate the potential usefulness of the test protocol for assessing tradeoffs between primary and secondary tasks in driving.

DRIVING EVALUATION AFTER TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY

Traumatic closed head injury results in a variety of cognitive and behavioral deficits that may be difficult to assess fully. Adequately evaluating driving safety is a common and important problem for health care professionals. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between standardized measures of cognitive function and measures of driving performance in patients with closed head injuries and in their age-matched relative or friend cohorts. Thirteen patients were evaluated. They had each sustained a closed head injury (followed by more than 1 h of coma) 3 to 6 months before testing. Their scores were analyzed along with those of seven cohorts. Assessments of cognitive function and behind-the-wheel driving performance were conducted by examiners blinded to subjects' group membership and medical condition. There was a significant relationship (r = 0.44) between the sum of rated scores of the Tactual Performance Test and Trail Making Test and the global pass/fail ratings of the behind-the-wheel driving test, but it was not related to the driving performance score. The difference between the verbal and performance IQs, and the difference between the block design and other performance tests of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised were also not significantly related to driving performance. These results suggest that tests of cognitive function alone are not adequate to predict driving performance, and should be used along with standardized driving performance evaluations before recommendations are made.