Drivers Of Forest Loss Research Articles

Identifying conditions where reed canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea) functions as a driver of forest loss in the Upper Mississippi River floodplain under different hydrological scenarios

Identifying conditions where reed canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea) functions as a driver of forest loss in the Upper Mississippi River floodplain under different hydrological scenarios

Investigating sacred natural sites and protected areas for forest area changes in Italy

AbstractForests will be critical to mitigate the effects of climate and global changes. Therefore, knowledge on the drivers of forest area changes are important. Although the drivers of deforestation are well known, drivers of afforestation are almost unexplored. Moreover, protected areas (PAs) effectively decrease deforestation, but other types of area‐based conservation measures exist. Among these, sacred natural sites (SNS) deliver positive conservation outcomes while making up an extensive “shadow network” of conservation. However, little is known on the capacity of SNS to regulate land‐use changes. Here, we explored the role of SNS and PAs as drivers of forest loss and forest gain in Italy between 1936 and 2018. We performed a descriptive analysis and modeled forest gain and forest loss by means of spatial binomial generalized linear models with residual autocovariates. The main drivers of forest area changes were geographical position and elevation, nonetheless SNS and PAs significantly decreased forest loss and increased forest gain. Although the negative relationship between SNS and forest loss is a desirable outcome, the positive relationship with forest gain is concerning because it could point to abandonment of cultural landscapes with consequent loss of open habitats. We suggest a legal recognition of SNS and an active ecological monitoring and planning to help maintain their positive role in biodiversity conservation. As a novel conservation planning approach, SNS can be used as stepping stones between PAs increasing connectivity and also to conserve small habitat patches threatened by human activities.

Tracking forest dynamic trends in Belize: the role of protected areas, agriculture, and fire in the South Eastern Selva Maya

ABSTRACT The Selva Maya represents the largest expanse of tropical forest in Mesoamerica, encompassing parts of Belize, northern Guatemala, and south-eastern Mexico. Patterns and processes of forest loss in Belize are less comprehensively studied than other regions in the Selva Maya. Hence, this research tracks twenty years of forest loss in relation to Protected Areas (PAs) and transborder activity in the country. Results show that since 2000, Belize lost 11% of its forest cover. In that same period, 39.7% of this loss has seen forest recovery, predominantly in southern portion of the country, and within PAs. Ongoing forest loss in the north has expanded towards central and southern Belize. Forest loss in PAs account for 14.3% of overall loss nationwide, with fires and agricultural expansion playing a prominent role in the encroachment on forestland. A better understanding of forest loss in Belize reinforces distinctions between forest loss in the north and the south of the country and demonstrates the need for enhanced forest protection. This research provides new information to conservation planners to better understand the dynamics and drivers of forest loss and regrowth in the Selva Maya region.

Editorial: Global Patterns and Drivers of Forest Loss and Degradation Within Protected Areas

Editorial: Global Patterns and Drivers of Forest Loss and Degradation Within Protected Areas

Drivers of tropical forest loss between 2008 and 2019

During December 2020, a crowdsourcing campaign to understand what has been driving tropical forest loss during the past decade was undertaken. For 2 weeks, 58 participants from several countries reviewed almost 115 K unique locations in the tropics, identifying drivers of forest loss (derived from the Global Forest Watch map) between 2008 and 2019. Previous studies have produced global maps of drivers of forest loss, but the current campaign increased the resolution and the sample size across the tropics to provide a more accurate mapping of crucial factors leading to forest loss. The data were collected using the Geo-Wiki platform (www.geo-wiki.org) where the participants were asked to select the predominant and secondary forest loss drivers amongst a list of potential factors indicating evidence of visible human impact such as roads, trails, or buildings. The data described here are openly available and can be employed to produce updated maps of tropical drivers of forest loss, which in turn can be used to support policy makers in their decision-making and inform the public.

Emerging threats from deforestation and forest fragmentation in the Wallacea centre of endemism

The Wallacea biogeographic region of Sulawesi, the Moluccas and Lesser Sunda is globally renowned for exceptional endemism, but is currently emerging as a development frontier in Indonesia. We assessed patterns and drivers of forest loss and fragmentation across the region, and used dynamic deforestation models to project future deforestation to 2053. Up to 10 231 km2 was deforested between 2000 and 2018, and a further 49 570 km2 is expected to be lost by 2053, with annual deforestation rates ranging between 0.09% and 2.17% in different sub-regions (average: 1.23%). Key biodiversity areas (priority sites for endemic and threatened biodiversity) are particularly vulnerable to deforestation if they are small, coastal and unprotected. Sub-regional variation in deforestation patterns and drivers must be acknowledged if conservation interventions are to be targeted and effective. We provide a valuable baseline from which to monitor Wallacea’s new development course, as Indonesia undergoes profound policy changes that will provide both challenges and opportunities for environmental governance and conservation.

Palm oil and the politics of deforestation in Indonesia

This paper studies the interactions between political and economic incentives to foster forest conversion in Indonesian districts. Using a district–level panel data set from 2001 to 2016, we analyze variation in remotely sensed forest losses as well as measures of land-use licensing. We link these outcomes to political incentives arising before idiosyncratically–timed local mayoral elections as well as to price exposure measures based on oil palm soil suitability combined with global price variations for palm oil. Empirical results document increases of about 4% in deforestation in the year prior to local mayoral elections on average. Additionally, palm oil plays a crucial role in driving deforestation dynamics. Deforestation rates increase by 7% in places that experience a one standard deviation increase in local price exposure, but no upcoming elections. These effects are amplified to almost 19% larger forest losses in places that experience pre-election years and a standard deviation higher palm oil price exposure at the same time. We thus find clear evidence for economic and political incentives reinforcing each other as drivers of forest loss and land conversion for oil palm cultivation.

Palm Oil and the Politics of Deforestation in Indonesia

This paper studies the interactions between political and economic incentives to foster forest conversion in Indonesian districts. Using a district–level panel data set from 2001 to 2016, we analyze variation in remotely sensed forest losses as well as measures of land-use licensing. We link these outcomes to political incentives arising before idiosyncratically–timed local mayoral elections as well as to price exposure measures based on oil palm soil suitability combined with global price variations for palm oil. Empirical results document increases of about 4% in deforestation in the year prior to local mayoral elections on average. Additionally, palm oil plays a crucial role in driving deforestation dynamics. Deforestation rates increase by 7% in places that experience a one standard deviation increase in local price exposure, but no upcoming elections. These effects are amplified to almost 19% larger forest losses in places that experience pre-election years and a standard deviation higher palm oil price exposure at the same time. We thus find clear evidence for economic and political incentives reinforcing each other as drivers of forest loss and land conversion for oil palm cultivation.

Drivers of Forest Loss in a Megadiverse Hotspot on the Pacific Coast of Colombia

Tropical forests are disappearing at unprecedented rates, but the drivers behind this transformation are not always clear. This limits the decision-making processes and the effectiveness of forest management policies. In this paper, we address the extent and drivers of deforestation of the Choco biodiversity hotspot, which has not received much scientific attention despite its high levels of plant diversity and endemism. The climate is characterized by persistent cloud cover which is a challenge for land cover mapping from optical satellite imagery. By using Google Earth Engine to select pixels with minimal cloud content and applying a random forest classifier to Landsat and Sentinel data, we produced a wall-to-wall land cover map, enabling a diagnosis of the status and drivers of forest loss in the region. Analyses of these new maps together with information from illicit crops and alluvial mining uncovered the pressure over intact forests. According to Global Forest Change (GFC) data, 2324 km2 were deforested in this area from 2001 to 2018, reaching a maximum in 2016 and 2017. We found that 68% of the area is covered by broadleaf forests (67,473 km2) and 15% by shrublands (14,483 km2), the latter with enormous potential to promote restoration projects. This paper provides a new insight into the conservation of this exceptional forest with a discussion of the drivers of forest loss, where illicit crops and alluvial mining were found to be responsible for 60% of forest loss.

Land use and land cover changes in Doume Communal Forest in eastern Cameroon: implications for conservation and sustainable management

Large-scale identification of land use and land cover change in a tropical forest is a challenge to landscape designers and forest ecologists. Here, Landsat images acquired during the years 2000, 2009, and 2018 were used to assess the spatial-dynamics of land use and land cover (LULC) during the last two decades (2000–2018). A classification system composed of six classes—dense forest with (high tree density and low tree density), swampy Raphia forest, swampy flooded forest and savanna were designed as LULC for this study. A maximum likelihood classification was used to classify Landsat images into thematic areas. Elsewhere, Landsat-based LULC mapping, post classification at the per-pixel scales and self-knowledge on the land cover change processes were combined to analyze LULC change, forest loss and change trajectories in Doume Communal Forest in eastern Cameroon. The results show that half of the study area changed in 2000–2009 and that the different types of LULC changes increased and involved more diverse and characteristic trajectories in 2009–2018 compared to 2000–2009. Degradation to a dense forest with low tree density and swampy Raphia forest was dominant, and the forest was mostly lost due to trajectories that involved conversion to agroforestry systems (10%), and a lesser extent due to trajectories that involved deforestation to grasslands (7%). The trajectory analyses did thus contribute to a more comprehensive analysis of LULC change and the drivers of forest loss and, therefore, is essential to improve the sustainable management and support spatial planning of the forest.

Analyses of Land Cover Change Trajectories Leading to Tropical Forest Loss: Illustrated for the West Kutai and Mahakam Ulu Districts, East Kalimantan, Indonesia

In Indonesia, land cover change for agriculture and mining is threatening tropical forests, biodiversity and ecosystem services. However, land cover change is highly dynamic and complex and varies over time and space. In this study, we combined Landsat-based land cover (change) mapping, pixel-to-pixel cross tabulations and expert knowledge to analyze land cover change and forest loss in the West Kutai and Mahakam Ulu districts in East Kalimantan from 1990–2009. We found that about one-third of the study area changed in 1990–2009 and that the different types of land cover changes in the study area increased and involved more diverse and characteristic trajectories in 2000–2009, compared to 1990–2000. Degradation to more open forest types was dominant, and forest was mostly lost due to trajectories that involved deforestation to grasslands and shrubs (~17%), and to a lesser extent due to trajectories from forest to mining and agriculture (11%). Trajectories from forest to small-scale mixed cropland and smallholder rubber occurred more frequently than trajectories to large-scale oil palm or pulpwood plantations; however, the latter increased over time. About 11% of total land cover change involved multiple-step trajectories and thus “intermediate” land cover types. The combined trajectory analysis in this paper thus contributes to a more comprehensive analysis of land cover change and the drivers of forest loss, which is essential to improve future land cover projections and to support spatial planning.

Subsistence lifestyles and insular forest loss in the Louisiade Archipelago of Papua New Guinea: an endemic hotspot

Insular areas of the south-west Pacific support high levels of global biodiversity and are undergoing rapid change. The Louisiade Archipelago of Papua New Guinea is a poorly known location with high levels of endemism. The largest island, Sudest Island, supports single-island endemic species and has the largest tract of forest remaining in this island group. The islands still support traditional subsistence lifestyles. This study investigated the patterns of forest loss since 1974 and predicted future forest loss to identify areas of conservation concern. We collected village population census data to assess population growth from 1979–2011. Historical vegetation mapping from 1974 was compared with Global Forest Change data from 2000–14. The geospatial drivers of forest loss were investigated using a generalised linear mixed model. Projected forest cover loss patterns in the islands were modelled in GEOMOD to the year 2030. Resident populations grew rapidly (6.0% per year, 1979–2011) but only a low rate of forest loss (e.g. −0.035% per year, Sudest Island) was observed between 1974 and 2014, restricted to low elevations near villages. Future modelling showed varied impacts on the remaining forest extents of the larger islands. The study offers a rare contemporary example of a biodiverse hotspot that has remained relatively secure. We concluded that local cultural and environmental settings of islands in the south-west Pacific can strongly determine the patterns and processes of forest cover change, and need to be considered in programs to conserve endemic diversity.

Swamp Forest Use and Loss in the Niger Delta: Contextual and Underlying Issues

Forest ecosystems are vital not only for the ecosystem and biogeochemical processes, but also for the livelihood of forest dependent communities for which its continual existence is a necessity. This study explored the pattern of forest use in the hinterlands of the Niger Delta and sought to elucidate the drivers of forest loss and how the ownership and management of the forest plots influenced the changes in the forest ecosystem. Ecosystem services reduction and forest loss/degradation were found to be increasing over the years due to crude oil activities, urbanization/developments, population increase, agricultural activities and natural causes like flood. While each factor contributed to forest loss directly and indirectly, and varied from community to community, agricultural activities and population growth were responsible for most of the losses across the landscape. Even though agricultural activities were essential and thrived in the region, sustainable forest (land) uses could have reduced the associated implications of such land uses; but this was however hampered by the farming practises (shifting cultivation) across most of the communities. Lack of proper, effective and sustainable forest management structures, poor individual commitment and monitoring of forest activities were found to encourage forest loss at different spatial scales. Provision of alternative sources of livelihood and ensuring that suitable guidelines on forest abstraction and harvest are enforced across the region, are steps to promoting biodiversity conservation and resource management.

Forest loss in different ecological zones of the Niger Delta, Nigeria: evidence from remote sensing

Despite the importance of the forest resources in tropical regions, forest continues to rapidly decrease due to demand from an ever increasing population. This study uses remote sensing to examine forest loss in the different forest types found in the Niger Delta of Nigeria from 1984 to 2011. The results show that the over utilization of forest resource in the past three decades has resulted in its degradation, particularly within protected areas in the Delta. However, the patterns and intensity of forest loss vary according to the type of forest. The majority of the forest reserves in lowland rainforests have lost over 40 % of their area, freshwater swamp forest reserves have lost about 30 %, whilst the reserves in mangrove forests have lost just 11 %. Deforestation is high in the lowland rainforest because the land is good for agriculture, but lower in freshwater swamp and mangrove forest because the land is covered in swamps and subjected to seasonal flooding, both of which limit accessibility. Drivers of forest loss in the region are complex, including illegal selective logging from both commercial loggers, due to high timber demand in cities and communal logging of firewood by local people used for domestic cooking.

Small Drones for Community-Based Forest Monitoring: An Assessment of Their Feasibility and Potential in Tropical Areas

Data gathered through community-based forest monitoring (CBFM) programs may be as accurate as those gathered by professional scientists, but acquired at a much lower cost and capable of providing more detailed data about the occurrence, extent and drivers of forest loss, degradation and regrowth at the community scale. In addition, CBFM enables greater survey repeatability. Therefore, CBFM should be a fundamental component of national forest monitoring systems and programs to measure, report and verify (MRV) REDD+ activities. To contribute to the development of more effective approaches to CBFM, in this paper we assess: (1) the feasibility of using small, low-cost drones (i.e., remotely piloted aerial vehicles) in CBFM programs; (2) their potential advantages and disadvantages for communities, partner organizations and forest data end-users; and (3) to what extent their utilization, coupled with ground surveys and local ecological knowledge, would improve tropical forest monitoring. To do so, we reviewed the existing literature regarding environmental applications of drones, including forest monitoring, and drew on our own firsthand experience flying small drones to map and monitor tropical forests and training people to operate them. We believe that the utilization of small drones can enhance CBFM and that this approach is feasible in many locations throughout the tropics if some degree of external assistance and funding is provided to communities. We suggest that the use of small drones can help tropical communities to better manage and conserve their forests whilst benefiting partner organizations, governments and forest data end-users, particularly those engaged in forestry, biodiversity conservation and climate change mitigation projects such as REDD+.

Land-cover change in the Paraguayan Chaco: 2000–2011

Land-use and land-cover change has been a topic that has called the attention of the scientific community for decades. Because of the importance of tropical and subtropical forest ecosystems, investigations into the causes and processes (e.g., underlying and proximate causation) that drive land use and land-cover change have typically concentrated on these regions. Consequently, little work has been done to understand the proximate and underlying drivers of land use and land-cover change in one of the least disturbed forests worldwide, the Paraguayan dry Chaco in South America. This article attempts to fill this gap in the literature by focusing on the processes and drivers behind land-cover change in the Paraguayan Chaco. More specifically, this article links underlying and proximate causes to regional land-cover change. To accomplish this task the study makes use of Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) data and census data. Results show major land-cover changes. Different from other dry regions in South America where soybean expansion has been pointed out as main driver of land-cover change, in the Paraguayan Chaco, cattle ranching is a major driver of forest loss.