Drinking Water Route Research Articles

Lovers in strange places: amphibian calling and amplexus detected in tidal mangrove creeks after rainfall

Temporary freshwater lenses can form in saline environments after rainfall, providing essential resources for species including drinking water and dispersal routes. However, there is limited indication that these lenses can also be used for breeding. Herein, we provide evidence of the green and golden bell frog, Litoria aurea, performing breeding activities, including calling and amplexus, in tidal mangrove creeks on Kooragang Island, NSW, Australia. Our findings suggest that these creeks intermittently phase into a low salinity state after the influx of fresh water from rainfall, forming temporary freshwater lenses that can be exploited before the creeks revert to a saline state. These lenses had salinities (1.4 ppt and 4.5 ppt) within the tolerance limit of L. aurea tadpoles, although we are unsure whether oviposition took place and offspring survival to metamorphosis was achieved. It is possible that anthropogenic disturbances to hydrology on Kooragang Island have benefited L. aurea by restricting tidal influences in mangrove creeks, prolonging the duration of freshwater lenses.

Comprehensive evaluation of antibiotics pollution the Yangtze River basin, China: Emission, multimedia fate and risk assessment

Antibiotics have attracted global attention because of their potential ecological and health risks. The emission, multimedia fate and risk of 18 selected antibiotics in the entire Yangtze River basin were evaluated by using a level Ⅳ fugacity model. High antibiotic emissions were found in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River basin. The total antibiotic emissions in the Yangtze River basin exceeded 1600 tons per year between 2013 and 2021. The spatial distribution of antibiotics concentration was the upper Yangtze River > middle Yangtze River > lower Yangtze River, which is positively correlated with animal husbandry size in the basin. Temperature and precipitation increases may decrease the antibiotic concentrations in the environment. Transfer fluxes showed that source emission inputs, advection processes, and degradation fluxes contributed more to the total input and output. High ecological risks in the water environment were found in 2018, 2019, 2020, and 2021. The comprehensive health risk assessment through drinking water and fish consumption routes showed that a small part of the Yangtze River basin is at medium risk, and children have a relatively high degree of health risk. This study provides a scientific basis for the pollution control of antibiotics at the basin scale.

Respon Vaksinasi ND Ayam IPB D1 yang Dipelihara pada Lingkungan Lahan Kering

Newcastle Disease (ND) is one of the diseases that causes large losses in the poultry farming industry. Vaccination can reduce symptoms and protect chickens from ND. High maintenance temperatures on dry land can interfere with immune cell production. IPB D1 chicken is a chicken resulting from a cross between local chickens and purebred chickens that is resistant to disease. The aim of the research was to determine the response of IPB D1 chicken vaccination against Newcastle Disease (ND) and compare the antibody titers of IPB D1 chickens in tropical regions that were vaccinated with ND via the drinking water and intramuscular routes. This research was carried out on 30 IPB D1 chickens divided into three groups, namely , group A vaccination via drinking water, group B vaccination via intramuscular and control group (C) with the aim of comparing the antibody titers of IPB D1 chickens vaccinated via drinking water and intramuscularly and to determine the response of vaccination of IPB D1 chickens against Newcastle Disease. Pre- and post-vaccination immune responses were tested using hemagglutination inhibition (HI). The results showed that the group of chickens vaccinated through drinking water had an average pre-vaccination antibody titer of 1.8 ± 0.91 log 2, at week 2 post-vaccination it was 3.3 ± 2.05 log 2, at week 4 post-vaccination it was 5 .3 ± 2.31 log 2 and at the 8th week post-vaccination 3.2 ± 1.22 log 2. The average antibody titer in the group of chickens vaccinated via intramuscular pre-vaccination was 1.6 ± 0.51 log 2, at week 2. -2 post-vaccination 5.4 ± 3.09 log 2, at the 4th week post-vaccination 4.89 ± 2.71 log 2 and at the 8th week post-vaccination 3.56 ± 2.01. It was concluded that ND vaccination via the drinking water and intramuscular route was able to increase antibodies to reach an average titer above 4 HI log 2 within a period of at least four weeks after administering the vaccine to IPB D1 chickens kept in a dry land environment. The antibody titer of IPB D1 chickens vaccinated intramuscularly increased faster than those vaccinated through drinking water.

Spatiotemporal distribution and probabilistic health risk assessment of arsenic in drinking water and wheat in Northwest China

Drinking water arsenic poisoning has been a health concern, however the importance of dietary arsenic exposure to health also needs to be taken into account. The aim of this study was to conduct a comprehensive health risk assessment of arsenic-contaminated substances in drinking water and wheat-based food intake in the Guanzhong Plain, China. 87 samples of wheat and 150 samples of water were randomly selected from the research region and examined. The level of arsenic in 89.33% of the water samples in the region exceeded the limit for drinking water (10 μg/L), with an average concentration of 29.98 μg/L. The arsenic in 2.13% of the wheat samples exceeded the food limit (0.5 mg/kg) with an average concentration of 0.24 mg/kg. Under the situation of different exposure pathways, two scenarios of deterministic and probabilistic health risk assessments were compared and analyzed. By contrast, the probabilistic health risk assessment can ensure a certain degree of confidence in the assessment results. The findings of this study indicated that the total cancer risk value faced by the population aged 3–79 years, except for those aged 4–6 years, was 1.03E-4–1.21E-3, which exceeded the 10E-6–10E-4 range of thresholds usually used by USEPA as guidance recommendations for determination. And the non-cancer risk experienced by the population aged 6 months to 79 years was higher than the acceptable threshold (1), with children aged 9 months to 1 year having the highest total non-cancer risk of 7.25. The potential health risks of the exposed population were mainly due to the drinking water route, and consumption of arsenic-containing wheat increased both carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks. Finally, the sensitivity analysis revealed that the assessment findings were most significantly influenced by exposure time. The amount of intake was the second influencing factor in the health risk assessment from drinking water and dietary intakes of arsenic, and arsenic concentration was the second influencing factor in the health risk assessment due to dermal exposure to arsenic. The findings of this study can aid in understanding the negative health consequences of arsenic pollution to local residents and in adopting focused remediation strategies to alleviate environmental concerns.

Situational analysis on fluoroquinolones use and characterization of high-level ciprofloxacin-resistant Enterococcus faecalis by integrated broiler operations in South Korea.

Fluoroquinolones are classified as "critically important antimicrobials for human medicine"; however, their extensive use in livestock poses a significant health risk to humans as it leads to the rapid spread of antimicrobial resistance. This study confirmed that 40.0%-71.4% of the farms in three of the five integrated broiler operations were administered ciprofloxacin (CIP). Moreover, preventive purposes (60.9%), veterinarian prescriptions (82.6%), drinking water route (100%), and 1 to 3 days (82.6%) of age were significantly highest (P < 0.05). 194 high-level ciprofloxacin-resistant (HLCR) Enterococcus faecalis (E. faecalis) were found in 65 of 74 farms, and of which, the prevalence of qnrA (63.9%), tetM (60.3%), ermB (64.9%), blaz (38.7%), and catA (34.0%) was significantly highest (P < 0.05). 154 (79.4%) isolates showed MDR, and the distribution of MDR was significantly differences among the operations (P < 0.05). All HLCR E. faecalis possessed double mutations in gyrA and parC, and S83I/S80I (90.7%) mutations were most commonly identified. Interestingly, the distribution of isolates with MICs ≥ 512 for both CIP and moxifloxacin was significantly higher in CIP-administered farms (56.5%) than in non-CIP-administered farms (41.4%) (P < 0.05). Also, the prevalence of strong or moderate biofilm formers in HLCR E. faecalis was significantly higher than that of weak and no biofilm formers (P < 0.05). HLCR E. faecalis were heavily distributed in the broiler farms in Korea; therefore, it is necessary to minimize the prevalence of resistant bacteria via structural management regulations such as cleaning and disinfection of farm environments.

Analysis of Heavy Metal Sources in Groundwater and Assessment of Health Risks: An Example from the Southwest Sub-basin of the Shiqi River

In order to explore the sources of pollution and health risk profile of heavy metal elements in groundwater, 41 sets of representative groundwater samples from the southwest sub-basin of the Shiqi River were examined for 10 heavy metal elements (As, Cr, Cd, Al, Cu, Zn, Ni, Co, Mn, and Hg), and correlation analysis and principal component analysis were used to resolve the possible sources of heavy metal contamination in groundwater in the study area. The concentration characteristics and health risk levels of the 10 heavy metals were assessed using the single-factor contamination index (Pi), the Nemerow comprehensive contamination index (PN), and the health risk model. The results showed that:① the average values of heavy metal elements of the groundwater in the study area all met the limit of the class Ⅲ water standard in the quality standard for groundwater (GB/T 14848-2017); only the maximum value of Al was exceeded, followed by a large variation in the concentrations of Al, Mn, and Cr. The heavy metal element with the largest average contribution was Al (65.74%). ② The results of the single-factor contamination index evaluation showed that only the heavy metal element Al exceeded the cleaning level, and the results of the Nemerow comprehensive contamination index evaluation showed that the study area was basically at low pollution levels, and the quality of groundwater was good. ③ The results of the multivariate statistical analysis showed that Zn, Co, and Mn were from mixed sources consisting of geological formation and domestic waste; Al, As, and Cu were from agricultural sources; Cd, Cr, and Ni were from industrial sources; and Hg came from long-range atmospheric transport. ④ The health risk values for all heavy metals in the study area were within acceptable limits, with higher health risk values for children than for adults from the drinking water route, lower health risk values than in adults from the dermal route, and higher health risk values for heavy metals from the drinking water route than those from the dermal route, indicating that the drinking water route was the main route of exposure to heavy metals.

Fluoride contamination, spatial variation, and health risk assessment of groundwater using GIS: a high-density survey sampling in Weifang City, North China.

The present study, with the aid of GIS, utilizes high-density groundwater (GW) sampling data (1398 samples) to analyze the spatial variation characteristics of GW fluoride in Weifang City (WFC), and evaluate the health risks associated with drinking water routes. The concentration of fluoride in the GW of WFC is observed to be between 0.08 and 9.16mg/L, with a mean value of 0.62mg/L. The fluoride concentration of a total of 192 GW samples exceeded the limit of China's GW quality standards (1mg/L), accounting for 14.74%. The GW fluoride concentration in most areas of WFC is less than 1mg/L. However, the relatively high-value zones are mostly concentrated in the upper reaches of Wen River, the east of Shouguang, the southeast of Anqiu, the east of Qingzhou, the east of Fangzi, and the southeast and northwest of Gaomi. The hydrochemical types of GW in WFC are mostly HCO3-Ca·Mg and SO4·Cl-Ca·Mg, while GW samples with hydrochemical types HCO3-Na and SO4·Cl-Na are characterized by high fluoride content. The hydrochemical characteristics of GW in WFC are mostly dominated by rock weathering. In addition, the northern coastal plain is evidently influenced by seawater intrusion. The concentration of fluoride in GW is affected by the dissolution of fluorine-containing minerals, cation exchange, and alkaline environmental factors. The effect of GW by seawater intrusion and very high content of Na+ will decrease the fluoride content of the GW through cation exchange. Health risk assessment demonstrated that the mean values of non-carcinogenic hazard quotient (HQ) for infants, children, teenagers, and adults were 0.52, 0.35, 0.31, and 0.30, respectively. In addition, the distribution characteristics of GW fluoride in high health risk areas (HQ > 1) in WFC are further consistent with the spatial variation of GW fluoride content. Overall, the health risk distribution area of GW fluoride in WFC is decreasing in the following order: infants > children > teenagers > adults.

Drinking water pollutants may affect the immune system: concerns regarding COVID-19 health effects.

The current coronavirus pandemic is leading to significant impacts on the planet, changing our way of life. Although the COVID-19 virus mechanisms of action and pathogenesis are still under extensive research, immune system effects are evident, leading, in many cases, to respiratory distress. Although apparent pollution reduction has been noticed by the population, environmental and human health impacts due to the increased use of plastic waste and disinfectants is concerning. One of the main routes of human exposure to pollutants is through drinking water. Thus, this point of view discusses some major contaminants in drinking water known to be immunotoxic, exploring sources and drinking water routes and emphasizing the known mechanisms of action that could likely compromise the effective immune response of humans, particularly raising concerns regarding people exposed to the COVID-19 virus. Based on a literature review, metals, plastic components, plasticizers, and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances may display the potential to exacerbate COVID-19 respiratory symptoms, although epidemiological studies are still required to confirm the synergistic effects between these pollutants and the virus.

The role of chemical exposures in reducing the effectiveness of water–sanitation–hygiene interventions in Bangladesh, Kenya, and Zimbabwe

AbstractThe sustainable success of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) interventions to reduce waterborne disease and promote public health in low‐income regions is uncertain. Recent large randomized controlled trials in Bangladesh, Kenya, and Zimbabwe revealed that traditional household WASH interventions are unlikely to reduce diarrhea or improve linear growth (i.e., reduce stunting) in infants and children—two important indicators of the effectiveness of WASH interventions. A possible factor contributing to the null results is that traditional WASH interventions control microbial pathogens but do not remove chemical toxicants. Exposure to many organic and inorganic chemical toxicants is associated with diarrheal symptoms, as well as with preterm birth and stunting. Many chemical toxicants have deleterious effects on the immune system, impairing the body's response to infectious diseases, and reducing the effectiveness of vaccinations. Globalization has led to rapid and largely unregulated import, production, use, and disposal without adequate treatment of large quantities of hazardous chemicals throughout the developing world, with profound effects on the environment and human health. Literature evidence from the past 10 to 15 years on putative and demonstrated chemical exposures in Bangladesh, Kenya, and Zimbabwe and the regions within the countries where the large WASH trials took place supports potential contribution(s) from chemical toxicants in the failure of traditional WASH interventions to relieve diarrhea and stunting. Mitigating exposures to organic and inorganic chemical immunotoxins through drinking water and other routes is likely to be a necessary‐but‐insufficient criterion for the sustainable success of WASH interventions.This article is categorized under: Engineering Water &gt; Water, Health, and Sanitation Engineering Water &gt; Sustainable Engineering of Water

Detection of Influenza A virus contamination in Newcastle Disease live virus vaccines and their pathological effects on visceral organs

To investigate this perception that the NDV live virus vaccine could be the source of Avian Influenza A virus (H9) contamination. Sixteen samples of ND live virus vaccines were purchased from the local market. Prior to use in birds, the samples were tested for Avian Influenza A virus contamination through RT-PCR and used in live birds for any gross pathology and histopathology changes. All the samples were negative against Avian Influenza A virus. Furthermore, these vaccines were also used in broiler and desi chicks at day 5 and day 21 through eye drop and drinking water route respectively. Then, these birds were slaughtered at day 10, 20, 30 and 40 for any gross pathological and histo-pathological changes against Avian Influenza (H9). There were no macroscopic and microscopic lesions observed in visceral organs like trachea, lungs, liver and spleen for Avian Influenza. The results of the study using RT-PCR indicated that the ND live virus vaccine both (local and imported) was free of Avian Influenza A virus (H9). There was a perception among some technical persons that some Avian Influenza outbreaks in the field might be through the source of Newcastle Disease live virus vaccine. This theory regarding contamination of Avian Influenza A virus in Newcastle Disease live virus vaccines found to be wrong on the basis of this study and these commercial vaccines placed in the market are safe to use against Newcastle Disease and are not source of Avian Influenza outbreaks in the field.

Monitoring the uptake of live avian vaccines by their detection in feathers

Protection against diseases caused by the avian viruses, Marek's disease, Infectious laryngotracheitis, chicken anemia and turkey meningoencephalitis is achieved by live vaccines. The application quality is important to assure proper uptake in commercial flocks. We describe a novel evaluation method for the vaccination process by sequential monitoring the vaccine viruses in feathers. Feather collection is easy, non-invasive and non-lethal for the birds, therefore advantageous for monitoring purposes. To demonstrate the vaccine virus presence, an innovative assay of nested real-time amplification was approached because vaccine viruses presence in vivo is less abundant comparing to virulent wild-type isolates.The Marek's disease virus vaccine virus, Rispens/CVI988, in feathers of commercial flock was detected from 4 to 7 days and for at least 3 months post-vaccination, until the survey stopped. As the drinking water route was newly adopted for Infectious laryngotracheitis vaccination, one or two vaccine doses/bird were administered. The virus uptake was detected in feathers between 2 and 20 days-post-vaccination. With a doubled vaccine dose the positivity bird rate was higher. For the first time the chicken anemia vaccine virus presence in chicken feathers was demonstrated between 14 and 35 days-post-vaccination. No previous studies were available, thus in parallel to feathers the vaccine virus was demonstrated in the livers and spleens. The turkey meningoencephalitis vaccine virus uptake in turkey feather-pulps is even more innovative because this is the first turkey virus amplified from feather-pulps. The vaccine virus presence resemble the kinetics of the other 3 viruses, 3–21 days-post-vaccination. Detecting the specific antibodies following vaccination possessed a lower sensitivity than vaccine virus demonstration in feathers. In summary, the presented assay can be adopted for the quality evaluation of the vaccination process in poultry.

Human health risks for Legionella and Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) from potable and non-potable uses of roof-harvested rainwater

A quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) of opportunistic pathogens Legionella pneumophila (LP) and Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) was undertaken for various uses of roof-harvested rainwater (RHRW) reported in Queensland, Australia to identify appropriate usages and guide risk management practices. Risks from inhalation of aerosols due to showering, swimming in pools topped up with RHRW, use of a garden hose, car washing, and toilet flushing with RHRW were considered for LP while both ingestion (drinking, produce consumption, and accidental ingestion from various activities) and inhalation risks were considered for MAC. The drinking water route of exposure presented the greatest risks due to cervical lymphadenitis and disseminated infection health endpoints for children and immune-compromised populations, respectively. It is therefore not recommended that these populations consume untreated rainwater. LP risks were up to 6 orders of magnitude higher than MAC risks for the inhalation route of exposure for all scenarios. Both inhalation and ingestion QMRA simulations support that while drinking, showering, and garden hosing with RHRW may present the highest risks, car washing and clothes washing could constitute appropriate uses of RHRW for all populations, and toilet flushing and consumption of lettuce irrigation with RHRW would be appropriate for non- immune-compromised populations.

Alterations in transcription and protein expressions of HCC-related genes in HepG2 cells caused by microcystin-LR

Microcystin-LR (MC-LR) is the most common and toxic hepatotoxin and it could induce human hepatitis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) via the route of drinking water. The aim of the present study was to determine the expressions of oncogenes c-fos, c-jun, c-myc, c-met, and N-ras and tumor suppressor gene PTEN in HepG2 cells following MC-LR-exposure to understand the possible mechanism of MC-LR-related human primary liver cancer. The results of qPCR and Western blotting showed that MC-LR-exposure at non- or sub-cytotoxic concentrations promoted the expressions of oncogenes c-fos, c-jun, c-myc, c-met, and N-ras while suppressed tumor-suppressor gene PTEN in HepG2 cells at both transcription and protein levels. This result suggests that HCC-related genes may be involved in human hepatitis and primary liver cancer caused by MC-LR. The work might be useful for evaluating the human health risk resulted from the long-term of MC-LR-exposure at low dose via drinking water route.

Laser flourimetric analysis of uranium in water from Vishakhapatnam and estimation of health risk

Uranium is a naturally occurring radioactive element that is both radiologically and chemically toxic. The presence of uranium in the aquatic environment is due to the leaching from natural deposits, release in mill tailings, the combustion of coal and other fuels, and the use of phosphate fertilizers that contain uranium. Intake of uranium through air and water is normally low, but in circumstances in which uranium is present in a drinking water source, the majority of intake can be through drinking water route. The uranium concentrations in ground water samples from Vishakhapatnam, India were estimated using laser fluorimetric technique and were observed to range from 0.6 to 12.3 ppb. The laser fluorimetry technique was found to be an excellent tool for direct measurement of uranium concentration in water samples at ultra-trace levels. The annual effective dose, cumulative dose for 70 years and the lifetime excess cancer risk from drinking of this water were calculated. The risks were low averaging only 10.6 × 10 -6 as none of the samples were observed to exceed the WHO recommended uranium concentration limit of 30 ppb.

Risk of Arsenic Exposure from Drinking Water and Dietary Components: Implications for Risk Management in Rural Bengal

This study investigates the risk of arsenic (As) exposure to the communities in rural Bengal, even when they have been supplied with As safe drinking water. The estimates of exposure via dietary and drinking water routes show that, when people are consuming water with an As concentration of less than 10 μg L(-1), the total daily intake of inorganic As (TDI-iAs) exceeds the previous provisional tolerable daily intake (PTDI) value of 2.1 μg day(-1) kg(-1) BW, recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 35% of the cases due to consumption of rice. When the level of As concentration in drinking water is above 10 μg L(-1), the TDI-iAs exceeds the previous PTDI for all the participants. These results imply that, when rice consumption is a significant contributor to the TDI-iAs, supplying water with an As concentration at the current national drinking water standard for India and Bangladesh would place many people above the safety threshold of PTDI. We also found that the consumption of vegetables in rural Bengal does not pose a significant health threat to the population independently. This study suggests that any effort to mitigate the As exposure of the villagers in Bengal must consider the risk of As exposure from rice consumption together with drinking water.

Vaccination of commercial broiler chicks against avian metapneumovirus infection: a comparison of drinking-water, spray and oculo-oral delivery methods

Avian metapneumovirus (aMPV) has become an important cause of viral respiratory infections in turkey and chickens. Live and inactivated vaccinations are available worldwide for prevention of disease and economic losses caused by this pathogen. The efficacy of these vaccines is vigorously tested under laboratory conditions prior to use in the field. In this study, a live subtype B aMPV vaccine was administered by spray, drinking water or oculo-oral methods to separate groups of broiler chicks under field conditions. Following this, the chicks were immediately transferred to separate rooms in an experimental isolation house, monitored and challenged with virulent subtype B aMPV. No clinical signs were recorded following the vaccination methods. In the oculo-oral vaccinated chicks, 40–60% of the birds were vaccine virus positive by RT-PCR. In addition, in comparison to other groups, statistically higher levels of aMPV ELISA antibodies were detected. After spray vaccination, the number of chicks positive for the vaccine virus increased gradually from 10% at one week to 30% by 3 weeks post vaccination. Following drinking water vaccination, 30% of chicks were aMPV positive at 1 week but negative by 3 weeks post vaccination. In both, spray and drinking water vaccinated groups, no ELISA antibodies were detected, but when challenged all chicks were protected against disease. At 5 days post challenge, 100% of chicks in the unvaccinated and those vaccinated by spray or drinking water routes but only 20% of the oculo-oral-vaccinated chicks were aMPV positive by RT-PCR. At 10 days post challenge, 10% of chicks in each group were aMPV RT-PCR positive. On challenge, all vaccinated chicks were protected against disease. It appears that when aMPV vaccine is accurately applied to chicks by spray or drinking water routes, both are capable of giving protection against clinical disease equal to that induced in those chicks vaccinated individually by the oculo-oral route.

Physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling of dibromoacetic acid in F344 rats

A novel physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model structure, which includes submodels for the common metabolites (glyoxylate (GXA) and oxalate (OXA)) that may be involved in the toxicity or carcinogenicity of dibromoacetic acid (DBA), has been developed. Particular attention is paid to the representation of hepatic metabolism, which is the primary elimination mechanism. DBA-induced suicide inhibition is modeled by irreversible covalent binding of the intermediate metabolite α-halocarboxymethylglutathione (αH1) to the glutathione-S-transferase zeta (GSTzeta) enzyme. We also present data illustrating the presence of a secondary non-GSTzeta metabolic pathway for DBA, but not dichloroacetic acid (DCA), that produces GXA. The model is calibrated with plasma and urine concentration data from DBA exposures in female F344 rats through intravenous (IV), oral gavage, and drinking water routes. Sensitivity analysis is performed to confirm identifiability of estimated parameters. Finally, model validation is performed with data sets not used during calibration. Given the structural similarity of dihaloacetates (DHAs), we hypothesize that the PBPK model presented here has the capacity to describe the kinetics of any member or mixture of members of this class in any species with the alteration of chemical-and species-specific parameters.

Leaching of uranium, radium and thorium from vertisol soil by ground water

Shallow land burial is routinely used for the disposal of low-level radioactive waste. Natural processes causing leaching of radionuclides can lead to contamination of surrounding ground water and soil by the radionuclides. The comparative leachability of radionuclides U(nat), 226Ra, 228Ra and Th(nat) from the soil of a radioactive waste disposal site, by ground water was evaluated. The probability of leaching was obtained in the following order Ra (≈77%) > U (≈40%) > Th (≈20%). Observed ratios (OR) were calculated to correlate leachability of radionuclides to that of major cations Ca2+ and Mg2+. The leaching of the radionuclides was seen to be dependent on Ca2+ and SO42− leached from the soil. This study provides sitespecific leachability of radionuclides, that can be used as indicator of the tendency for migration or retention in soil. It can play an important role during an unforeseen accident like breach of containment at the waste disposal site leading to contamination of soil and ground water and causing hazard to public via drinking water route.

Effects of Vaccination Routes Against IB on Performance and Immune Responses of Broiler Chickens

Vaccination is often considered as an appropriate option in prevention most of poultry viral diseases worldwide. This study was conducted to evaluate effects of current routine vaccination routes (spray, eye-drop and drinking water) of live vaccines against infectious bronchitis (IB) on performance and humoral immune responses of broiler chickens. The results of this study indicated that Vaccination significantly (P<0.05) affects performance of the broiler chickens and effects on weight gain and FCR, did not differed significantly among these routes. Immune responses of vaccinated chickens were significantly (P<0.001) differed from those of control chickens. Comparison of various vaccination routes revealed that eye-drop group had the highest antibody titer with the closest range. There were also positive significant (P<0. 01) degrees of correlation among chickens vaccinated with spray and eye-drop, spray and drinking water, eye-drop and drinking water (r = 0.84, r = 0.80 and r = 0.82, respectively). In conclusion, eye-drop method induced the highest antibody titers with the closest range. Key word: Vaccination, IB, spray, eye-drop, drinking water Introduction Materials and Methods The art and science of vaccinology aimed at prevention of infectious diseases responsible for the huge economic losses in poultry industry worldwide. Among viral poultry diseases, infectious bronchitis (Cavanagh and Naqi, 2003) is acute, highly contagious and economically important diseases of chickens and in most countries, control of this disease is largely through the vaccination. Isolation of different strains or serotypes of IB virus (Cook, 2001) indicates that vaccination policy could be effective if the vaccines contain local strains and delivered via the best application route. Different types of vaccine including live, inactivated, DNA (Kapczynski et al., 2003) and recombinant (Song et al., 1998; Johnson et al., 2003) vaccines have been studied. On the other hand, effects of some vaccination routes with different types of vaccine on the outcome of immune responses have also been investigated (Ratanasethakul and Cumming, 1983; Cholakova, 1985; Wakenell and Sharma, 1986; Halvorson et al., 1991; Toro et al., 1997; Kapczynski et al., 2003). Previous studies support that routes of application affect receiving the proper dose of vaccine, time of stimulating protective immunity and range of immunity in a vaccinated flock. Differences between this study and the previous reports are application of three routes as a routine vaccination program and in drinking water routes. During this study, level of antibody, uniformity of immune responses and effects of secondary vaccination on humoral immunity induced by different methods of vaccination were compared. Chickens: Eighty one-day-old broiler chicks (Arbor-Acres strain) were divided into 4 groups (A, B, C and D, 20 chicks in each group). The chicks of each group were leg labeled, kept in a separate cages, fed ad libitum with a diet prepared based on Arbor-Acres husbandry catalogue. Vaccine and vaccination: Live attenuated Massachusetts H strain vaccine was used for primary 120 vaccination of 1-day-old chicks on arrival day and for revaccination at age 18 days against IB via the most routine routes of application including spray, eye-drop and drinking water methods as follows: Drinking water: A vial of vaccine was diluted with distilled water and serial dilutions were made until to get 1 dose of vaccine in 1 ml distilled water. The chickens of group A were given 1ml containing 1 dose of the vaccine via mouth using 1ml syringes. Eye-drop method: The vaccine was diluted with distilled water and serial dilutions were made until to get 400 dose of vaccine in 10 ml distilled water. One drop (0.25 μl containing 1 dose) was delivered for one-eye of each chicks of group B using a droplet dividing 1ml into 40 drops. Spray method: In this method, a vial of vaccine was diluted with distilled water and serial dilutions were made until to get 10 dose of vaccine in 10 ml distilled Talebi et al.: Routes of vaccination 796 Table 1: Performance of chickens during eight weeks of husbandry period Age Control Group Routes of Vaccination (week) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Feed Average FCR Spray Group Eye-drop Group Drinking water Group ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Feed Average FCR Feed Average FCR Feed Average FCR (gr/week) Weight (gr/week) Weight (gr/week) Weight (gr) (gr) (gr) 0 --38 ----37.5 ----38 ----37.5 --1 112 125 1.28 112 120.5 1.34 112 120 1.36 112 121 1.34 2 224 275 1.49 224 268 1.51 224 267 1.52 224 270 1.50 3 420 540 1.58 420 530 1.60 420 527 1.61 420 533 1.59 4 630 895 1.77 630 877 1.81 630 875 1.81 630 880 1.81 5 77

Comparative Evaluation of Haemagglutination Inhibition Test and Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay for Detection of Antibodies Against Newcastle Disease Vaccine in Broiler Chicks

The antibody (Ab) titres to the intermediate Newcastle disease virus (NDV) vaccine (Komorov strain) in broiler chicks using haemagglutination inhibition (HI) test and an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) were compared in this study. The tirtres were compared following vaccination of chicks via the aerosol, intranasal and drinking water routes. For all routes of the vaccine administration, higher Ab tritres were detected using ELISA technique than HI test. For both serological assays, the highest Ab titres detected when the vaccine was administered via the aerosol route with significant level (p< 0.05) compared to the control group. Non-consistent pattern in the Ab levels between the two tests was observed for intranasal and drinking water routes. As a conclusion, ELISA proved more accurate, sensitive and rapid but less economic than HI test when used for detection of Ab titres against NDV vaccines.