Drinking Period Research Articles

Regional Cerebral Blood Flow During Alcohol Withdrawal

Serial bilateral measurements of regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) by the xenon Xe 133 inhalation method were made during 13 withdrawal periods in 12 male alcoholics with pronounced physical dependence. A significant global reduction of rCBF was found during the first two days of withdrawal. The largest decreases were seen in cases with clouded sensorium and with an extended preceding drinking period. An rCBF distribution with relatively high temporal and low parietal flows during the first two days was coupled to aggravated symptoms. In two men who reported auditory and visual hallucinations during the measurements, elevated rCBF values were found in the temporal, Sylvian, and occipital regions.

Family Rituals and the Recurrence of Alcoholism Over Generations

There have been relatively few attempts to identify environmental factors in the transmission of alcoholism across generations. Using the framework of family systems theory, the authors examined the extent of change in family rituals in 25 families in which at least 1 parent was or had been an alcoholic. They found that families whose rituals were altered during the period of heaviest parental drinking were more likely to evidence transmission of an alcohol problem to the children's generation than families whose rituals remianed intact.

The influence of ethanol treatment on cytogenetic effects in bone marrow cells of Chinese hamster by cyclophosphamide, aflatoxin B 1 and patulin

Chromosomes were investigated from the bone marrow of Chinese hamster which received 10% (v/v) ethanol as the only liquid supply for a period of 9 weeks. At the end of the ethanol drinking period 1 group of animals received 2 oral doses of 80 mg/kg cyclophosphamide (CP), a second group received 2 oral doses of 25 mg/kg aflatoxin B 1 (AFB 1), a third group 2 oral doses of 20 mg/kg patulin (PA). The 2 applications were separated by 24 h. The intake of ethanol had no effect on the bone marrow chromosones, and had no potentiating effect on CP induced aberrations. 9 weeks consumption of 10% (v/v) ethanol revealed likewise no influence on the frequencies on the frequencies of chromosomal aberrations induced by the indirect mutagen AFB 1. However, the rate of chromosomal aberrations induced by the direct mutagen PA was clearly suppressed in ethanol drinking animals.

Drinking during Pregnancy in Alcoholic Women

Assessment of specific periods of bringe drinking (including dates, duration, and amount consumed) would seem particularly important in research on the outcome of pregnancy. One study has already shown that brain malformations in stillborn and expired infants were more related to the pattern of drinking than to overall "AA score."

Host defenses during prolonged alcohol consumption in a controlled environment

To determine the pure effects of prolonged alcohol ingestion on host defenses, we studied six noncirrhotic alcoholic volunteers drinking in the Clinical Research Center. All had tests of granulocyte, humoral, and cell-mediated immune function before and at the end of eight to 28 days' intake of approximately 0.75 liter of 100-proof whiskey per day. Results of all tests were normal during the drinking period, except for the following: (1) granulocyte chemotaxis was depressed in three volunteers and improved on alcohol withdrawal; (2) antibody response to keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH) immunization was poor; and (3) delayed hypersensitivity could not be established to KLH. Although it is somewhat surprising that more abnormalities were not induced, the three defects noted may contribute to the alcoholic's poor resistance to infection. (<i>Arch Intern Med</i>137:1539-1543, 1977)

Host Defenses During Prolonged Alcohol Consumption in a Controlled Environment

To determine the pure effects of prolonged alcohol ingestion on host defenses, we studied six noncirrhotic alcoholic volunteers drinking in the Clinical Research Center. All had tests of granulocyte, humoral, and cell-mediated immune function before and at the end of eight to 28 days' intake of approximately 0.75 liter of 100-proof whiskey per day. Results of all tests were normal during the drinking period, except for the following: (1) granulocyte chemotaxis was depressed in three volunteers and improved on alcohol withdrawal; (2) antibody response to keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH) immunization was poor; and (3) delayed hypersensitivity could not be established to KLH. Although it is somewhat surprising that more abnormalities were not induced, the three defects noted may contribute to the alcoholic's poor resistance to infection.

Ethanol self-administration in the rat induced by forced drinking of ethanol

Rats were forced to drink increasingly strong concentrations of ethanol for 7 weeks and were then divided into two groups. One group was given a choice between two neutral flavors, the drinking of one of which was paired with an equal volume of intragastric alcohol. The drinking of the other was paired with an equal volume of water. The second group was given an oral choice between alcohol and water. Control rats were kept under identical conditions for 7 weeks, except that they were given no alcohol. Some of the controls were also given a choice between two neutral flavors when one of these was paired with intragastric alcohol. Others were given an oral choice between alcohol and water. Rats forced to drink alcohol drank more of the neutral flavor paired with intragastric alcohol than did the controls not previously given alcohol. On the other hand, rats forced to drink alcohol and then given an oral choice between alcohol and water drank substantially less alcohol than did the control rats with no previous experience of alcohol that were also given an oral choice between alcohol and water. It was concluded that forced drinking of alcohol produces a conditioned aversion to the taste and smell of alcohol and also a tolerance to the after-effects of alcohol. However, such tolerance will only lead to voluntary intake of alcohol if intake bypasses the sensory effects of alcohol for which a conditioned aversion had developed during the period of forced drinking.

Time dependent action of pimozide on deprivation-induced water intake: Evidence for a direct drug effect

Time-response curves were established for the effect of 3 doses of pimozide, a potent and specific dopamine receptor blocker, on deprivation-induced drinking in rats. Injections occured once every 3 days at intervals of 2, 4, 8, and 16 hr prior to the daily 15 min drinking period. Pimozide produced a significant attenuation in the amount of water normally consumed (on nondrug days) whose degree varied with the proximity of the injection to the drinking period. Only the 2 higher doses 0.5 and 1.0 mg/kg) produced a significant dose dependent effect which was strongest at the 2 hr interval and which gradually weakened by the 8th post injection hr. The relevance of these findings for a direct versus an indirect action of the drug on water intake is discussed.

Pitressin-induced inhibition of drinking following water deprivation in the SWR/J mouse

SWR/J female mice, 8 hr water deprived, were injected intraperitoneally with 0, 10, 50, 200, and 800 mU of aqueous pitressin, 5 min prior to presentation of water. Drinking measurements made at 5, 15, 25, and 35 min of the drinking period revealed a significant transient inhibition of drinking for the three highest dosages. Injections had no measureable effect on blood pressure. Only the highest dosage had an effect on gross motor activity, a significant decline.

Social background variables, referral sources and life events of male and female alcoholics.

Rural state hospital alcoholics (650 males, 74 females) were investigated on a social history inventory. Alcoholics lost social stability as indicated by continuous employment (47.0%) and poor job performance (24.3%). Spouse (32.3%), family (24.3%), court system (38.5%), and law enforcement agency (29.8%) were primarily responsible for the subjects' referral to treatment. The involvement of other community agencies and health professionals in the referral of alcoholics was minimal. Financial (52.5%) and marital problems (39.9%) might be produced by alcoholism. Other events such as the death of a significant other (28.5%), anticipated or realized responsibility (30.8%), and changes associated with aging (18.7%) might precipitate alcoholism. More female than male alcoholics had spouses with a drinking problem (73.9% vs 15.4%), were transported to the hospital from their own or relative's home (71.6% vs 56.4%), were more frequently referred to treatment by a friend (13.5% vs 5.9%), physician (12.2% vs 4.3%), clergy (2.7% vs 0.6%) and county welfare department (14.9% vs 6.5%) and less frequently by law enforcement agency (13.5% vs 31.7%) and court (25.7% vs 40.0%). More female than male alcoholics reported stressful life events which preceded a period of drinking.

THE SIMULATED DRINKING GANG

This two-part paper deals with an experimental model for studying interactional behavior from a systems point of view. The experimental model incorporates a research strategy utilizing both a token economy and the simulation of a naturally occurring clinical phenomenon, the alcoholic drinking gang. The model is primarily geared to do two things: a) study the changes in clinical behavior that occur when experimental conditions are manipulated to facilitate the formation of the behavioral "system" as opposed to experimental conditions which interfere with system formation; and b) build into the model tasks which produce measurable performance data as a method of monitoring behavior deemed essential for the successful development of an operational system. The experimental model involved admitting up to six alcoholic individuals to a research ward specifically designed for studies utilizing experimentally induced intoxication. Each study was divided into a 7-day predrinking period, a 10- to 14-day drinking period, during which time alcohol was available to research subjects, and a 5- to 7-day withdrawal period. A token economy was established which allowed for the following essential features to be present: a) a group of chronic alcoholic individuals who desire to go through a drinking experience together; b) the pooling of resources in order to purchase alcohol; c) rules established by the group for the sharing of whatever alcohol becomes available to the group; and d) the opportunity to earn money for the purchase of additional alcohol after the initial supply runs out, in order to keep the group drinking experience going. All "money", or tokens, could be earned only via successful performance at the Cooperative Task Device (CTD), a cooperative, two-person game, and tokens could be utilized to purchase three types of commodities from an automated dispensing machine, alcohol, cigarettes, and television time. Automated data recording provided detailed data about CTD performance and commodity-purchasing records. The discussion centers around difficulties inherent in a simulated model of natural behavior. It is pointed out that laboratory simulation vs. natural setting, as the preferred site for carrying on behavioral research, remains an active controversy, and the arguments on both sides are presented. Difficulties inherent in doing "systems" research are also discussed. A series of alternative hypotheses to explain behavior within the simulated drinking gang are listed, and the data that would be necessary in order to substantiate these alternative hypotheses are also listed. It is maintained that the simulated drinking gang is an advantageous experimental model in that it closely approximates the basic criteria of the naturally occurring phenomenon, while at the same time allowing subjects a range of behaviors, each of which substantiates a different hypothesis about the central organizing feature in alcoholic groups.

To Drink or Not To Drink: An Experimental Analysis of Group Drinking Decisions by Four Alcoholics

The author reports on a study that examined the effects of social influence on the initiation, maintenance, and termination of drinking in a group of four men who were chronic alcoholics. These men made decisions in a group setting about alcohol and cigarette use for which they earned reinforcement points redeemable for drinks and cigarettes during the study or for money at its end. Decision making delayed the initiation of drinking and tended to lower overall alcohol consumption during a period of prolonged drinking but was not effective in inducing early termination of the drinking episode. Mood disturbances, physical symptoms, and psychopathology became more pronounced when the amount of alcohol consumed increased. The extent of decision making changed during times of high motivation for drinks or cigarettes; these decisions were mainly a function of individual leadership. In the light of these findings, the author discusses the possible utility of the group decision-making model as a tool for the trea...

Enzyme activities and glycogen concentration in skeletal muscle in alcoholism. The effect of abstinence and physical conditioning.

Abstract. Muscle metabolism of chronic alcoholics has been studied using a muscle biopsy technique immediately after a drinking period, after 6–7 days' abstinence and after one month's physical conditioning. The activities of CPK, HK, LDH, MDH and SDH were significantly decreased in musculus vastus lateralis for 1–2 days after an alcoholic debauch. The enzyme activities of the alcoholics, who either had been abstinent for 6–7 days or in addition conditioned for one month, did not differ from those of the controls. The concentration of muscle glycogen was at the same level in both groups, but in bicycle ergometer work of an equal relative intensity the alcoholics used more glycogen than the control subjects. The results suggest that the energy metabolism of skeletal muscle is disturbed in an acute stage of chronic alcoholism as judged from the activities of some key enzymes of energy‐yielding metabolic pathways. Enzyme activities are normalized during the first week of abstinence, but the consumption of glycogen in physical work still remains larger than in normal muscles after one month's conditioning due to difference in physical fitness.

Effect of alcohol on short term memory in alcoholics.

Acute alcohol intoxication is commonly followed by partial or total amnesia† for events occurring during the drinking period (Goodwin et al., 1969a). Individuals observed during the ‘blackout’ period have been noted to have a specific short term memory deficit, with remote and immediate memory largely intact (Ryback, 1970; Goodwin et al., 1970; Tamerin et al., 1971). The amnesia appears to be anterograde rather than retrograde, resembling the characteristic memory deficit in Korsakov's syndrome. Speculation has ensued that blackouts and Korsakov's syndrome may share common pathophysiological elements, though there is no direct evidence for this (Goodwin et al., 1969b).

A therapeutic revolving door.

The replacement of the "drunk tank" by the "detoxification center" as society's response to long-term alcoholism raises the question of whether these centers may not become new "revolving doors" for the alcoholic where his symptoms are treated while his illness is ignored. A two-year experience with such a unit suggests that this need not be the case. A follow-up of the first 100 patients admitted to such a center for detoxification revealed that 43 were readmitted one or more times, that 41 maintained contact with the unit during sober intervals, and that 16 achieved extended sobriety. Through an open readmission policy the unit and its staff establish a developing therapeutic relationship which extends beyond the periods of drinking and helps the patient confront and begin to deal with his severe alcoholism problem.

The oral absorption of water.

A perfusion system was designed whereby the oral cavity of the rabbit under urethane anesthesia could be exposed to water in isolation from the remaining gastrointestinal system and the nasal cavity. Tritiated water was recovered from one external jugular vein within 40 s of the commencement of oral perfusion. The recovery rate increased linearly up to 200 s, arriving at a level of water averaging 1.7 × 10−3 ml/ml of venous blood. Rabbits dehydrated for 24 h were observed to have a relatively continuous water intake period ranging 85–200 s from the time of reexposure to water. It may be concluded that water can be absorbed from the mouth during the drinking period of a thirsty rabbit. Under normal circumstances the level of absorption can be assumed to be greater than the experimental because of the influences of muscular activity, blood flows, and increased areas of mucosal exposure. The data may be associated with the oropharyngeal metering of water intake.

Mobility as an Aspect of Stress in an Arctic Community1

Environmental sources of stress, in terms of scarce fur and food resources, the need for adequate shelter, and the physical hardships involved in obtaining these necessities, persist as features of life in some contemporary sub‐arctic communities. In a small, isolated village of Hare Indians in the boreal forest of Canada's Northwest Territories, a variety of social sources of stress has also been found to affect the people. These include acculturative influences, a local feud, prolonged periods of bush isolation and population concentration, and expectations and obligations for generosity and reciprocity. Given the people's strong emphasis upon emotional restraint, aggression as a means of relieving stress is almost entirely restricted to periods of heavy drinking. Population mobility is a major factor in the control and release of stress. The annual cycle consists of several phases of band dispersal and ingathering; each phase has its characteristic tensions. Successive periods of population redistribution relieve many stresses which have been generated in previous phases. Each new phase, in its turn, creates other stresses which find release in the next part of the cycle. Mobility is also high within each cycle phase, and movements are connected with tensions of isolation, boredom, interpersonal friction, and drinking. High mobility thus serves both to generate and relieve stress within a social and ecological framework.

Flavor preference: Effects of ingestion-contingent intravenous saline or glucose

In Experiment 1, hungry rats with intravenous cannulae were fed a non-nutritive sweetened coffee solution on 5 occasions. Shortly after each such drinking period, one group was infused with 5–10 ml of 10% glucose solution; a second group was similarly infused with 0.9% saline solution and a third group was not infused at all. In a subsequent preference test between sweetened coffee and saccharin solution, the saline group had a reduced preference for coffee relative to the other two groups, which did not differ significantly between themselves. Experiment 2 was a replication in which a number of procedural details were changed. The results were similar to those of Experiment 1.

Alcoholic Thrombocytopenia in Three Inpatient Drinking Alcoholics

Three known alcoholics without medical complications were given alcohol ad lib. Platelets were counted periodically during and following the period of drinking. There was an initial transient decline in platelet levels. A more gradual decline then occurred after the second day. Upon cessation of drinking there was a slow recovery of platelet values. None of the subjects showed evidence of liver disease, folate deficiency, or intravascular coagulation. The results suggest that alcohol has a direct effect on platelet turnover.

Fluid intake and punishment-attenuating drugs.

Abstract Rats adapted to a 23 hr fluid-deprivation schedule were injected with chlordiazepoxide (15 or 30 mg/kg) either 15 min or 2.25 hr before a one hr drinking period. Water intake remained at baseline (saline placebo) level. The animals were then continued on the same schedule but were adapted to 1.5 per cent NaCl solution intake during the one hr drinking period in place of water. Animals were able to hydrate themselves with this solution and their one hr intake of it was equal in volume to their one hr water intake level when on the previous schedule. Chlordiazepoxide (7.5, 15 or 30 mg/kg) injected 15 min before drinking markedly increased the intake of 1.5 per cent NaCl solution. Phenobarbital (40 mg/kg) had a similar effect. The results are related to the punishment-attenuating properties of these drugs.