Drift Tube Ion Mobility Research Articles

The effect of salt on the conformations of three model proteins is revealed by variable temperature ion mobility mass spectrometry

Three ‘model’ proteins of varying molecular mass: lysozyme, cytochrome C, and BPTI are incubated with sodium iodide and following nano-spray ionisation, their gas-phase conformations are determined using drift tube ion mobility mass spectrometry (DT IM-MS). Ion mobility measurements were carried out on these proteins with helium as the buffer gas at three different drift cell temperatures – ‘ambient’ (300K), ‘cold’ (260K) and ‘hot’ (360K). Significant levels of adducted iodide are observed on all three proteins with the number of iodides correlating to the number of available basic sites. The conformational space occupied by each protein is altered in the presence of salt, this is exhibited by a reduction in the intensities of adducted species for high and low charge states for each protein. This ‘salting in’ reduces the CCS spread for lysozyme and BTPI to converge on the values calculated from the crystal structure data. A change in conformation of all proteins is observed as a function of charge state, which is attributed to coulombically driven unfolding. Thermally induced unfolding (which is observed at both cold and hot temperatures) is minimised in the presence of adducted iodide. This is the first report of ‘cold denaturisation’ for proteins in the gas phase and suggests that this effect maybe intrinsic to the protein fold.

Carbohydrate structure characterization by tandem ion mobility mass spectrometry (IMMS)2.

A high resolution ion mobility spectrometer was interfaced to a Synapt G2 high definition mass spectrometer (HDMS) to produce IMMS-IMMS analysis. The hybrid instrument contained an electrospray ionization source, two ion gates, an ambient pressure linear ion mobility drift tube, a quadrupole mass filter, a traveling wave ion mobility spectrometer (TWIMS), and a time-of-flight mass spectrometer. The dual gate drift tube ion mobility spectrometer (DTIMS) could be used to acquire traditional IMS spectra but also could selectively transfer specific mobility selected precursor ions to the Synapt G2 HDMS for mass filtration (quadrupole). The mobility and mass selected ions could then be introduced into a collision cell for fragmentation followed by mobility separation of the fragment ions with the traveling wave ion mobility spectrometer. These mobility separated fragment ions are finally mass analyzed using a time-of-flight mass spectrometer. This results in an IMMS-IMMS analysis and provides a method to evaluate the isomeric heterogeneity of precursor ions by both DTIMS and TWIMS to acquire a mobility-selected and mass-filtered fragmentation pattern and to additionally obtain traveling wave ion mobility spectra of the corresponding product ions. This new IMMS(2) instrument enables the structural diversity of carbohydrates to be studied in greater detail. The physical separation of isomeric oligosaccharide mixtures was achieved by both DTIMS and TWIMS, with DTIMS demonstrating higher resolving power (70-80) than TWIMS (30-40). Mobility selected MS/MS spectra were obtained, and TWIMS evaluation of product ions showed that isomeric forms of fragment ions existed for identical m/z values.

A compact high resolution ion mobility spectrometer for fast trace gas analysis

Drift tube ion mobility spectrometers (IMS) are widely used for fast trace gas detection in air, but portable compact systems are typically very limited in their resolving power. Decreasing the initial ion packet width improves the resolution, but is generally associated with a reduced signal-to-noise-ratio (SNR) due to the lower number of ions injected into the drift region. In this paper, we present a refined theory of IMS operation which employs a combined approach for the analysis of the ion drift and the subsequent amplification to predict both the resolution and the SNR of the measured ion current peak. This theoretical analysis shows that the SNR is not a function of the initial ion packet width, meaning that compact drift tube IMS with both very high resolution and extremely low limits of detection can be designed. Based on these implications, an optimized combination of a compact drift tube with a length of just 10 cm and a transimpedance amplifier has been constructed with a resolution of 183 measured for the positive reactant ion peak (RIP(+)), which is sufficient to e.g. separate the RIP(+) from the protonated acetone monomer, even though their drift times only differ by a factor of 1.007. Furthermore, the limits of detection (LODs) for acetone are 180 pptv within 1 s of averaging time and 580 pptv within only 100 ms.

Towards a miniaturized non-radioactive electron emitter with proximity focusing

Most state of the art gas sensor systems based on atmospheric pressure ionization, such ion mobility spectrometers use radioactive beta-sources (e.g. 3H or 63Ni) to provide free electrons with high kinetic energy to initiate a chemical gas phase ionization of the analytes to be detected. Here, we introduce a non-radioactive electron emitter which generates free electrons at atmospheric pressure. Therefore, electrons are generated in a vacuum by field emission and accelerated towards a 300 nm thin 1 mm2 silicon nitride membrane separating the vacuum from atmospheric pressure. Electron currents of about a few hundred microamps can be reached. High energetic electrons of about 10 keV can easily penetrate the membrane without significant loss of kinetic energy. The concept of proximity focusing avoids complex electron lenses to focus the electron beam onto the membrane. The used field emitter tips are made of multi-walled carbon nanotubes. Another benefit of our system is that no insulated power supply operating at high voltage is needed, as necessary for thermo emitters. Here, we show a first prototype of a proximity focused electron gun with field emitting carbon nanotubes. The system is coupled to our drift tube ion mobility spectrometer for validation. Ion mobility spectra similar to those of a 3H ionization source were achieved.

Bradbury–Nielsen–Gate–Grid Structure for Further Enhancing the Resolution of Ion Mobility Spectrometry

In our previous work we proposed a three-zone theory for the Bradbury-Nielsen (BN) gate and proved with a grid-BN structure ion mobility drift tube that enhancements of the three-zone features led to higher resolutions and sometimes higher sensitivities. In this work we continued to seek further improvements of the resolution performance by adopting a BN-grid structure in the same drift tube. The postgate grid works both for confinement of the BN gate induced electric field and for isolation of the injection field from the drift field. This makes it possible to obtain better resolutions by further enhancing the compression electric field and lowering the injection field. It was found in the following experiments that reducing the injection field led to higher resolutions yet lower sensitivities. At an injection field of 140 V/cm, the inverse compression coefficient was found to be much larger than that in the grid-BN structure at all gating voltage differences (GVDs). At GVD = 350 V and a gate pulse width of 0.34 ms, the ion mobility spectrometry efficiency R(m)/R(c) reached as high as 221% in the BN-grid structure, presenting a further increase compared to 182% in the grid-BN structure. Finally, two examples are given to show the separation power improvements with good resolutions.

Results of a transient simulation of a drift tube ion mobility spectrometer considering charge repulsion, ion loss at metallic surfaces and ion generation

With optimized geometry and operating parameters both IMS selectivity and sensitivity can be significantly increased. However, finding these parameters and geometry requires an accurate knowledge of the electrical field and the ion concentration within the IMS at any time of operation. Furthermore, the ion loss at metallic surfaces and space charge effects caused by the moving ion cloud must be considered. This is particularly true when using non-radioactive electron emitters which generate a comparably high space charge density at electron currents similar to radioactive beta-sources due to their smaller ionization volume. This can lead to a reduced IMS resolution mainly caused by coulomb repulsion. In this work a transient model which enables a detailed view on the electric field within the IMS considering ion diffusion and migration as well as ion loss and coulomb repulsion is presented. This finite element model provides excellent agreement between simulated IMS spectra and experimental data especially when considering space charge effects and coulomb repulsion respectively. The model is used to design a short drift tube IMS with significantly improved resolution. Furthermore, this model allows considering ion-ion and ion-neutral reactions, such as ion generation, charge transfer reactions and ion-ion recombination. Moreover, fluid dynamics can be considered as required for modeling aspiration type IMS.

Resolving Structural Isomers of Monosaccharide Methyl Glycosides Using Drift Tube and Traveling Wave Ion Mobility Mass Spectrometry

Monosaccharide structural isomers including sixteen methyl-D-glycopyranosides and four methyl-N-acetylhexosamines were subjected to ion mobility measurements by electrospray ion mobility mass spectrometry. Two ion mobility-MS systems were employed: atmospheric pressure drift tube ion mobility time-of-flight mass spectrometry and a Synapt G2 HDMS system which incorporates a low pressure traveling wave ion mobility separator. All the compounds were investigated as [M + Na](+) ions in the positive mode. A majority of the monosaccharide structural isomers exhibited different mobility drift times in either system, depending on differences in their anomeric and stereochemical configurations. In general, drift time patterns (relative drift times of isomers) matched between the two instruments. Higher resolving power was observed using the atmospheric pressure drift tube. Collision cross section values of monosaccharide structural isomers were directly calculated from the atmospheric pressure ion mobility experiments, and a collision cross section calibration curve was made for the traveling wave ion mobility instrument. Overall, it was demonstrated that ion mobility-mass spectrometry using either drift tube or traveling wave ion mobility is a valuable technique for resolving subtle variations in stereochemistry among the sodium adducts of monosaccharide methyl glycosides.

Coupling laser ablation/desorption electrospray ionization to atmospheric pressure drift tube ion mobility spectrometry for the screening of antimalarial drug quality

Significant developments in the field of ambient desorption/ionization mass spectrometry (MS) have led to high-throughput direct analysis and imaging capabilities. However, advances in coupling ambient ionization techniques with standalone drift tube ion mobility spectrometry (DTIMS) have been comparatively slower, despite the attractive ruggedness and simplicity of IMS. In this study, we have developed and characterized a laser ablation/desorption electrospray ionization (LADESI) DTIMS platform, and applied it to the detection of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) in antimalarial tablets collected in developing countries. The overarching goal of this work was to perform an initial evaluation of LADESI DTIMS as a technique with the potential for constituting the core of a portable drug quality-testing platform. The set-up consisted of an IR laser for desorption and an electrospray ionizer for capturing the ablated plume coupled to a high-resolution monolithic resistive glass drift tube ion mobility spectrometer. For more confident API identification, tablet extracts were also investigated via electrospray IM MS to correlate LADESI DTIMS reduced mobility (K(0)) values to m/z values. Overall, it was found that the IR LADESI DTIMS platform provided distinct ion mobility spectral fingerprints that could be used to detect the presence of the expected APIs, helping to distinguish counterfeit drugs from their genuine counterparts.

Investigation of ion–ion-recombination at atmospheric pressure with a pulsed electron gun

For future development of simple miniaturized sensors based on pulsed atmospheric pressure ionization as known from ion mobility spectrometry, we investigated the reaction kinetics of ion-ion-recombination to establish selective ion suppression as an easy to apply separation technique for otherwise non-selective ion detectors. Therefore, the recombination rates of different positive ion species, such as protonated water clusters H(+)(H(2)O)(n) (positive reactant ions), acetone, ammonia and dimethyl-methylphosphonate ions, all recombining with negative oxygen clusters O(2)(-)(H(2)O)(n) (negative reactant ions) in a field-free reaction region, are measured and compared. For all experiments, we use a drift tube ion mobility spectrometer equipped with a non-radioactive electron gun for pulsed atmospheric pressure ionization of the analytes. Both, ionization and recombination times are controlled by the duty cycle and repetition rate of the electron emission from the electron gun. Thus, it is possible to investigate the ion loss caused by ion-ion-recombination depending on the recombination time defined as the time delay between the end of the electron emission and the ion injection into the drift tube. Furthermore, the effect of the initial total ion density in the reaction region on the ion-ion-recombination rate is investigated by varying the density of the emitted electrons.

Letter: A Simple Ion Source Set-up for Desorption/Ionization on Silicon with Ion Mobility Spectrometry and Ion Mobility Spectrometry-Mass Spectrometry

Using a simple ion source set-up, laser desorption/ionization on silicon (DIOS) was demonstrated with the use of a custom-made drift tube ion mobility spectrometer (IMS), mounted on a commercial triple quadrupole mass spectrometer, and with an IMS equipped with a Faraday plate detector. DIOS was tested by mobility measurement of tetrapropylammonium iodide, tetrabutylammonium iodide and tetrapentylammonium iodide, whilst 2,6-di-tert- butylpyridine was used as a standard. The reduced mobilities measured for the test halides are in concordance with previously obtained ion mobility spectrometry-mass spectrometry data.

Selective ion suppression as a pre-separation method in ion mobility spectrometry using a pulsed electron gun

Ion mobility spectrometry is a well-known method for fast trace gas detection. Detection limits in the very low ppb- and even ppt-range, fast response times down to a second and good separation power combined with a reasonable instrumental effort make ion mobility spectrometry more and more attractive. Aiming for higher separation power we investigate the ion specific lifetime of different ion species in a field free reaction region of a drift tube ion mobility spectrometer equipped with a pulsed non-radioactive electron gun. When turning off the electron gun ionization stops and the total ion concentration in the reaction region starts to decrease, while different ion species have different decay times. By varying the time delay between the end of the ionization and the injection pulse transferring all remaining ions of one polarity from the reaction region into the drift region the individual decay times can be measured. Our experimental data show that the lifetime of ion species in a field free reaction region mainly depends on ion-ion-recombination and charge transfer reactions leading to significant lifetime differences. Therefore, short-lived ions can be effectively suppressed in the reaction region by introducing a sufficient time delay between the end of the ionization and the injection pulse. This allows detecting even smallest concentrations of long-lived ions in a complex short-lived background. From our experimental data it can be also concluded that wall losses and the ion transport within the sample gas stream out of the reaction region just play a minor role in the ion loss.

Computational fluid dynamics-Monte Carlo method for calculation of the ion trajectories and applications in ion mobility spectrometry

A computational fluid dynamics-Monte Carlo approach (abbreviated as CMC) based on SIMION has been developed for simulating the ions trajectories in both the fluid and electric fields simultaneously, the gas flow effect and collision of the ions with the gas molecules are considered within this approach. Four kinds of physical parameters of the instruments can be obtained by this model: the flow field, the electric field, the ion trajectories and the mobility spectrum. A drift tube ion mobility spectrometer was built and simulated to verify this model. The distribution of gas flow field (velocity, pressure, temperature) was simulated by a 2D geometry. The ions trajectories and ion mobility spectra of the IMS were then calculated. The good agreements between simulation and experiment show that the CMC model has predictive power for modeling ion motion at ambient pressure, and this model can serve as visual aids for intuitively understanding the factors that determine ion transport.

Effective Temperature of Ions in Traveling Wave Ion Mobility Spectrometry

Traveling wave ion mobility spectrometers (TW IMS) operate at significantly higher fields than drift tube ion mobility spectrometers. Here we measured the fragmentation of the fragile p-methoxybenzylpyridinium ion inside the TW ion mobility cell of the first-generation SYNAPT HDMS spectrometer. The ion's vibrational internal energy was quantified by a vibrational effective temperature T(eff,vib), which is the mean temperature of the ions inside the cell that would result in the same fragmentation yield as observed experimentally. Significant fragmentation of the probe ion inside the TW IMS cell was detected, indicating that field heating of the ions takes place in TW IMS. For typical small molecule IMS conditions, T(eff,vib) = 555 ± 2 K. The variations of the effective temperature were studied as a function of the IMS parameters, and we found that T(eff,vib) decreases when the wave height decreases, when the pressure increases, or when the wave speed increases. The energy transfer efficiency of argon is higher than for He, N(2), or CO(2). With T(eff,vib) being directly related to the ion speed inside the TW IMS, our results also provide new insight on the ion movement in TW IMS. We also discuss the influence of field heating of ions for calibration and structural studies in TW IMS.

Direct Analysis in Real Time Coupled to Multiplexed Drift Tube Ion Mobility Spectrometry for Detecting Toxic Chemicals

Current and future chemical threats to homeland security motivate the need for new chemical detection systems to provide border, transportation, and workplace security. We present the first successful coupling of a commercial direct analysis in real time (DART) ion source to a resistive glass monolithic drift tube ion mobility spectrometer (DTIMS) as the basis for a low maintenance, versatile, and robust chemical monitoring system. in situ ionization within the electric field gradient of the instrument enhances sensitivity and provides a safe sampling strategy. The instrument uses nitrogen as both the DART discharge and DTIMS drift gases, allowing for a high electric field to be used for ion separation while keeping cost-of-use low. With the use of a traditional signal averaging acquisition mode, the 95% probability of detection (POD) for analytes sampled from melting point capillary tubes was 11.81% v/v for DMMP, 1.13% v/v for 2-CEES, and 10.61 mM for methamidophos. Sensitivity was improved via a prototype transmission-mode geometry interface, resulting in an almost 2 orders of magnitude decrease in the POD level for DMMP (0.28% v/v). As an alternative to transmission mode operation, digital multiplexing of the DTIMS ion injection step was also implemented, finding a 3-fold improvement in signal-to-noise ratios for 200 μs gate injections and a 4.5-fold for 400 μs gate injections.

Resistive Glass IM-TOFMS

The design of a new ion mobility mass spectrometer (IM-MS) is presented. This new design features an ambient-pressure resistive glass ion mobility drift tube (RGIMS) coupled to a high-resolution time-of-flight mass spectrometer (TOFMS) by an enhanced interface that includes two segmented quadrupoles. The interface design demonstrates an increase in sensitivity while maintaining high resolving power typically achieved for ambient-pressure IMS drift tubes. Performance of the prototype instrument was evaluated and the analytical figures of merit for standard solutions as well as complex samples such as human blood were determined. For a 3 μM solution of caffeine, the peak was collected in 36 s and gave a response of 10 counts/s. The detection limit (defined as 1 count/s) was calculated to be 300 nM concentration of caffeine from the response rate from the 36 s run. Controlled fragmentation of caffeine was achieved through adjustment of voltages applied on the interface lenses. Over 300 tentative metabolites were detected in human blood along with 80 isomers/isobars with ion counts >5. Isotope ratios from extracted mass spectra of selected mobility peaks were used to identify selected metabolite compounds. High separation power for both IMS (resolving power, t(d)/Δt(w1/2), was 85) and MS (mass resolving power, m/Δm, maximum was 7000 with a mass accuracy between 2 and 10 ppm) was measured. Developed software for data acquisition, control and display allowed flexibility in instrument control, data evaluation and visualization.

Theoretical and experimental study of the achievable separation power in resistive‐glass atmospheric pressure ion mobility spectrometry

We present a detailed investigation of the performance of our previously reported nanoelectrospray high-resolution resistive-glass atmospheric pressure drift tube ion mobility spectrometer constructed with monolithic resistive-glass desolvation and drift regions. Using experimental spectral data and theoretical pulse width and diffusion variables, we compare theoretical and experimental resolving powers achievable under a variety of field strengths and ion gate pulse widths. The effects of instrumental and operational parameters on the resolution achievable in chromatographic terms are also discussed. Following characterization of the separation power of the instrument, experimental spectral peak width data is fitted by a least-squares procedure to a pre-existing semi-empirical model developed to study contributions to peak width other than initial pulse width and diffusional broadening. The model suggests possible contributions to the final measured peak width from electric field inhomogeneity and minor contributions from instrumental parameters such as anode size, anode-to-anode grid distance and drift gas flow rate. The model also reveals an unexpected ion gate width dependence on the final measured peak width that we attribute to non-ideal performance of the Bradbury-Nielsen ion gate and limitations in the design of our pulsing-electronics.

Characterization of a high resolution drift tube ion mobility spectrometer with a multi-ion source platform

This study presents an atmospheric pressure ionization high resolution ion mobility spectrometer (IMS) equipped with a multi-ion source platform, which together with the design of the drift tube chamber allows the use of various atmospheric pressure ionization (API) methods, namely electrospray ionization (ESI), corona discharge atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (CD-APCI), atmospheric pressure photo ionization (APPI), and radioactive atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (R-APCI). The instrument thus allows one to study samples using the same drift tube with different ionization techniques either in positive or in negative ion mode. The instrument has a high resolving power, around 100, and a reproducible reduced mobility value of ∼1.48 cm 2/Vs (relative standard deviation below 1%) for 2,6-di- tert-butylpyridine (2,6-D tBP) was obtained with all of the ionization methods. The shape of the ion pulse as a function of gate opening time and how this affect the resolving power is discussed based on the observed differences between calculated and measured resolving power.

Improving FAIMS Sensitivity Using a Planar Geometry with Slit Interfaces

Differential mobility spectrometry or field asymmetric waveform ion mobility spectrometry (FAIMS) is gaining broad acceptance for analyses of gas-phase ions, especially in conjunction with largely orthogonal separation methods such as mass spectrometry (MS) and/or conventional (drift tube) ion mobility spectrometry. In FAIMS, ions are filtered while passing through a gap between two electrodes that may have planar or curved (in particular, cylindrical) geometry. Despite substantial inherent advantages of the planar configuration and its near-universal adoption in current stand-alone FAIMS devices, commercial FAIMS/MS systems have employed curved FAIMS geometries that can be more effectively interfaced to MS. Here we report a new planar (p-) FAIMS design with slit-shaped entrance and exit apertures that substantially increase ion transmission in and out of the analyzer. The entrance slit interface effectively couples p-FAIMS to multi-emitter electrospray ionization (ESI) sources, improving greatly the ion current introduced to the device and allowing liquid flow rates up to approximately 50 microL/min. The exit slit interface increases the transmission of ribbon-shaped ion beams output by the p-FAIMS to downstream stages such as a MS. Overall, the ion signal in ESI/FAIMS/MS analyses increases by over an order of magnitude without affecting FAIMS resolution.

An Ion Trap-Ion Mobility-Time of Flight Mass Spectrometer with Three Ion Sources for Ion/Ion Reactions

This instrument combines the capabilities of ion/ion reactions with ion mobility (IM) and time-of-flight (TOF) measurements for conformation studies and top-down analysis of large biomolecules. Ubiquitin ions from either of two electrospray ionization (ESI) sources are stored in a three dimensional (3D) ion trap (IT) and reacted with negative ions from atmospheric sampling glow discharge ionization (ASGDI). The proton transfer reaction products are then separated by IM and analyzed via a TOF mass analyzer. In this way, ubiquitin +7 ions are converted to lower charge states down to +1; the ions in lower charge states tend to be in compact conformations with cross sections down to approximately 880 A(2). The duration and magnitude of the ion ejection pulse on the IT exit and the entrance voltage on the IM drift tube can affect the measured distribution of conformers for ubiquitin +7 and +6. Alternatively, protein ions are fragmented by collision-induced dissociation (CID) in the IT, followed by ion/ion reactions to reduce the charge states of the CID product ions, thus simplifying assignment of charge states and fragments using the mobility-resolved tandem mass spectrum. Instrument characteristics and the use of a new ion trap controller and software modifications to control the entire instrument are described.

Digitally-Multiplexed Nanoelectrospray Ionization Atmospheric Pressure Drift Tube Ion Mobility Spectrometry

One of the shortcomings of atmospheric pressure drift tube ion mobility spectrometry (DTIMS) is its intrinsically low duty cycle (approximately 0.04-1%) caused by the rapid pulsing of the ion gate (25-400 micros) followed by a comparatively long drift time (25-100 ms), which translates into a loss of sensitivity. Multiplexing approaches via Hadamard and Fourier-type gating techniques have been reported for increasing the sensitivity of DTIMS. Here, we report an extended multiplexing approach which encompasses arbitrary binary ion injection waveforms with variable duty cycles ranging from 0.5 to 50%. In this approach, ion mobility spectra can be collected using conventional signal averaging, arbitrary, standard Hadamard and/or "extended" Hadamard operation modes. Initial results indicate signal-to-noise gains ranging from 2-7-fold for both arbitrary and "extended" Hadamard sequences. Standard Hadamard transform IMS provided increased sensitivity, with gains ranging from 9-12-fold, however, mobility spectra suffered from defects that appeared as false peaks, which were reduced or eliminated when using arbitrary or "extended" Hadamard waveforms for multiplexing. Digital multiplexing enables variation of the duty cycle in a continuous manner, minimizing the contribution of imperfect modulation on spectral defects without the need for complex spectral correction methods. By reducing the frequency of gating events employed in the variable duty cycle sequences, the contributions of factors such as ion depletion prior to gating, interaction of successively injected ion packets, and the cumulative effect of imperfect gating events were mitigated.