Drift Fence Arrays Research Articles

Mongolian Marmot (<i>Marmota sibirica</i>) Ecosystem Engineering Effects on Herpetofauna

The Mongolian marmot (Marmota sibirica) is a relatively large-bodied, social rodent that lives in colonies across the Mongolian steppes and adjacent parts of China and Russia. Marmots serve as ecosystem engineers that display multiple functions on the steppe environments they inhabit. Mongolian marmots experienced a 75% decline across Mongolia in the 1990s that led to their listing as endangered globally. The decline of marmots likely affected other species given their importance to the ecosystems they inhabit. To examine the role of marmots on herpetofauna, we established drift fence arrays with associated pitfall and funnel traps on active marmot colonies, inactive colonies, and control sites in the forest-steppe and semi-desert zones of Mongolia. In total, we identified 555 individuals representing 5 species of reptiles in Ikh Nart Nature Reserve (semi-desert) from 2010 – 2011 and 22 individuals of 3 species of reptiles and one amphibian species in Hustai National Park (forest-steppe) in 2014 and 2016. We found significantly higher species abundance and some diversity indices on active and inactive colonies compared to control sites in Hustai. Vegetation height and cover significantly affected the abundance and species richness of reptiles in Ikh Nart. In Ikh Nart, we found that under conditions of higher vegetation cover and height, reptiles were distributed more widely across the landscape, but with lower vegetation cover and height, reptiles associated more strongly with marmot burrows. Burrows likely provide shelter from extreme climatic conditions and refugia from predation. Our research provides insights into how marmots create important habitats for associated fauna. This and similar experimental approaches will allow us to better understand the biodiversity patterns in and around marmot burrows.

Ecosystem engineering influence of Mongolian marmots (Marmota sibirica) on small mammal communities in Mongolia

Mongolian marmots (Marmota sibirica) live in colonies that consist of numerous burrows and are considered ecosystem engineers. Although once a common steppe species, marmots are now endangered due to overharvesting, which has led to concerns over the impacts of their loss on other species. The decline of marmots likely affected other species given their importance to the ecosystems they inhabit. To examine the role of marmots on small mammal, we established Sherman traps and drift fence arrays with associated pitfall and funnel traps on active marmot colonies, inactive colonies, and control sites in the forest-steppe and semi-desert zones of Mongolia. Overall, we identified 385 individuals representing 11 species of rodents and 1 species of bat in Ikh Nart and 149 individuals representing 2 species of rodents and 1 species of insectivore from Hustai. We found mixed results between diversity indices and abundance of small mammals on treatment and control sites, complicating the picture. During periods of greater precipitation and resulting higher vegetation cover, species abundance and the Shannon-Wiener, Simpson's, and evenness indices all changed significantly, suggesting that the effect of marmots on other species varies based on environmental conditions.

Reptile Host Associations of Ixodes scapularis in Florida and Implications for Borrelia spp. Ecology.

Host associations of the tick vector for Lyme Borreliosis, Ixodes scapularis, differ across its geographic range. In Florida, the primary competent mammalian host of Lyme disease is not present but instead has other small mammals and herpetofauna that I. scapularis can utilize. We investigated host–tick association for lizards, the abundance of ticks on lizards and the prevalence of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (sl). To determine which lizard species I. scapularis associates with, we examined 11 native lizard species from historical herpetological specimens. We found that (294/5828) of the specimens had attached ticks. The most infested species were Plestiodon skinks (241/1228) and Ophisaurus glass lizards (25/572). These species were then targeted at six field sites across Florida and sampled from June to September 2020, using drift fence arrays, cover boards and fishing. We captured 125 lizards and collected 233 immature I. scapularis. DNA was extracted from ticks and lizard tissue samples, followed by PCR testing for Borrelia spp. Of the captured lizards, 69/125 were infested with immature I. scapularis. We did not detect Borrelia spp. from tick or lizard tissue samples. Overall, we found that lizards are commonly infested with I. scapularis. However, we did not detect Borrelia burgdorferi sl. These findings add to a growing body of evidence that lizards are poor reservoir species.

Habitat Assessment of the Broad-Headed Skink (Plestiodon laticeps) and the Associated Squamate Community in Eastern Kansas

During the summers of 2015-2017, we performed standardized surveys across the known range of the Broad-headed Skink in eastern Kansas. We used a combination of drift fence arrays with funnel traps and visual encounter surveys (VES) to collect occurrence data on the Broad-headed Skink. A Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) was used to determine which habitat variables explained the variation observed in the squamate assemblage. The position of the Broad-headed Skink was explained by average log length and overstory tree size. A secondary analysis implies the Broad-headed Skink is also associated with presence of Black Walnut (Juglans nigra). A logistic regression was used to determine which habitat variables were significant in predicting presence of the Broad-headed Skink. The variables from the most successful model included average log length, overstory tree size, understory tree dispersion, and overstory tree dispersion. These habitat attributes suggest the Broad-headed Skink prefers mature patches of forest, and habitat structure rather than tree species composition is more useful in predicting Broad-headed Skink presence.

Incidentally gathered natural history information on Bullsnakes (<i>Pituophis catenifer sayi</i>) in southeastern Alberta

We present observations on Bullsnakes (Pituophis catenifer sayi) gathered during a study of Prairie Rattlesnakes (Crotalus viridis) in a multiple-use, mixed grass landscape adjacent to the South Saskatchewan River, ~30 km northeast of Medicine Hat, Alberta, in May–October 1997. Hibernacula shared with rattlesnakes were located close to the river. We captured 31 Bullsnakes, either in a drift fence array around a hibernaculum or by hand; three were recaptured once. Emergence from the hibernaculum ended in mid-May, and return to it began in early September. A gap in capture events occurred between early July and late August, possibly attributable to fossorial activity during the height of the summer. The sex ratio of captured adult snakes was 0.64 in favour of males. Males attained the greatest maximum body sizes, but there was no significant size dimorphism by sex. Bullsnakes were assignable to juvenile, subadult, and adult classes by body size. Most captures were made on slopes in the immediate vicinity of the river, in areas classed as “thin breaks”, but four captures, about 7 km east of the river, provide evidence of long-distance movements from hibernacula. Captures were seldom made in the vicinity of anthropogenic features. Gas field development has increased greatly in the years since these data were collected. Our findings provide a baseline for Bullsnake population responses to such changes.

Using Drift Fence Arrays to Compare Terrestrial Herpetofauna Diversity in Three Habitats at Tishomingo National Wildlife Refuge, Oklahoma

Abstract Unlike avifauna, which have been inventoried and monitored for decades at Tishomingo National Wildlife Refuge, OK, herpetofauna have had few targeted inventories on the refuge. Therefore, in 2010 we established 6 permanent drift fence arrays to expand the current knowledge on the terrestrial herpetofauna present within the refuge. The arrays were in operation for a total of 105 nights over 5 years (2010–2014), capturing 1122 vertebrates including 12 anuran, 1 salamander, 13 snake, 5 lizard, and 2 turtle species. The surveys resulted in the discovery of 5 new amphibian species as well as a new mammal species on the refuge. By placing arrays across 3 different habitat types, we were able to compare and determine that there were differences in species diversity and relative abundance across those habitats. The results have shown the richness of herpetofauna in the area has been underestimated. The study also indicates that a preserve established for the conservation of one particular species group (...

Do biomass harvesting guidelines influence herpetofauna following harvests of logging residues for renewable energy?

Forests are a major supplier of renewable energy; however, gleaning logging residues for use as woody biomass feedstock could negatively alter habitat for species dependent on downed wood. Biomass Harvesting Guidelines (BHGs) recommend retaining a portion of woody biomass on the forest floor following harvest. Despite BHGs being developed to help ensure ecological sustainability, their contribution to biodiversity has not been evaluated experimentally at operational scales. We compared herpetofauanal evenness, diversity, and richness and abundance of Anaxyrus terrestris and Gastrophryne carolinensis among six treatments that varied in volume and spatial arrangement of woody biomass retained after clearcutting loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) plantations in North Carolina, USA (n = 4), 2011-2014 and Georgia (n = 4), USA 2011-2013. Treatments were: (1) biomass harvest with no BHGs, (2) 15% retention with biomass clustered, (3) 15% retention with biomass dispersed, (4) 30% retention with biomass clustered, (5) 30% retention with biomass dispersed, and (6) no biomass harvest. We captured individuals with drift fence arrays and compared evenness, diversity, and richness metrics among treatments with repeated-measure, linear mixed-effects models. We determined predictors of A. terrestris and G. carolinensis abundances using a priori candidate N-mixture models with woody biomass volume, vegetation structure, and groundcover composition as covariates. We had 206 captures of 25 reptile species and 8710 captures of 17 amphibian species during 53690 trap nights. Herpetofauna diversity, evenness, and richness were similar among treatments. A. terrestris abundance was negatively related to volume of retained woody biomass in treatment units in North Carolina in 2013. G. carolinensis abundance was positively related with volume of retained woody debris in treatment units in Georgia in 2012. Other relationships between A. terrestris and G. carolinensis abundances and habitat metrics were weak or absent. The lack of consistent community or population responses suggests the addition of a woody biomass harvest to a clearcut in pine plantations does not impact herpetofauna use of Coastal Plain loblolly plantations in the southeastern United States. We recommend additional research to examine relationships between woody biomass harvesting and rarer species or amphibians with high desiccation risk, particularly in other regions and harvesting systems.

Herpetofaunal Diversity and Seasonality from a Remnant Coastal Chenier Forest in Southwestern Louisiana

Cheniers are ancient beach ridges in southwestern Louisiana that are often characterized by coastal forest surrounded by marshland. Coastal chenier forests (CCFs) are considered an imperiled habitat in Louisiana because many forest remnants are considerably impacted due to human activities and recent hurricanes. Because little is known about the herpetofaunal community of CCFs, I initiated a seasonal herpetofaunal diversity and abundance study on a privately-owned, remnant CCF in eastern Cameron Parish, Louisiana. Utilizing coverboards and drift fence arrays with pitfall and funnel traps, I documented 12 species (4 anuran, 4 snake, 3 lizard, and 1 turtle) comprising CCF obligate and facultative species, as well as one marsh transient species. Species-accumulation curves indicate the sample was representative of the small herpetofaunal community. Three amphibian (Incilius nebulifer [Gulf Coast Toad], Lithobates sphenocephalus utricularius [Coastal Plains Leopard Frog], and Gastrophryne carolinensis [Eastern Narrow-mouthed Toad]) and 2 reptile (Scincella lateralis [Little Brown Skink] and Thamnophis p. proximus [Orangestriped Ribbonsnake]) species comprised 94% of the captures. Diversity was highest during the spring, with 3 months (March–May) of sampling detecting 92% of the total diversity observed. Sampling during single months only yielded 42–75% of the diversity. Amphibian abundance varied by month (highest June to September) and with the presence of rain, whereas reptile abundance only varied by month (highest in March). Funnel traps were more effective and quantified diversity better than pitfall traps or coverboards. The herpetofaunal diversity at the site was low and comprised of mostly generalist species; regional specimen records also exhibit a modest herpetofaunal community. This data will provide baseline information to determine the impacts of future hurricanes on the herpetofaunal community, analyze recolonization dynamics following hurricanes, and make comparisons to other CCF remnants in the region. I also provide recommendations for improving herpetofauna sampling methodology in coastal settings.

Herpetofaunal community change in multiple habitats after fifteen years in a southwest Florida preserve, USA.

Herpetofaunal declines have been documented globally, and southern Florida, USA, is an especially vulnerable region because of high impacts from hydrological perturbations and nonindigenous species. To assess the extent of recent change in herpetofauna community composition, we established a baseline inventory during 1995-97 at a managed preserve in a habitat rich area of southwest Florida, and repeated our sampling methods fifteen years later (2010-11). Nine drift fence arrays were placed in four habitat types: mesic flatwood, mesic hammock, depression marsh, and wet prairie. Trapping occurred daily for one week during 7-8 sampling runs in each period (57 and 49 total sampling days, respectively). Species richness was maintained in mesic hammock habitats but varied in the others. Catch rates of several native species (Anaxyrus terrestris, Lithobates grylio, Anolis carolinensis, Nerodia fasciata) declined significantly. Other native species (Lithobates sphenocephalus, Siren lacertian, and Notophthalmus viridescens piaropicola) that were abundant in 1995-97 declined by greater than 50%. Catch rate of only two species (the nonindigenous Anolis sagrei and the native Diadophis punctatus) increased significantly. Hierarchical cluster analysis indicated similarity within habitat types but significant dissimilarity between sampling periods, confirming shifts in community composition. Analysis of individual species’ contributions to overall similarity across habitats shows a shift from dominance of native species in the 1990s to increased importance of nonindigenous species in 2010-11. Although natural population fluctuations may have influenced differences between the two sampling periods, our results suggest considerable recent change in the structure and composition of this southwest Florida herpetofaunal community. The causes are unknown, but hydrological shifts and ecological impacts of nonindigenous species may have contributed.

Drift fences in traps: theoretical evidence of effectiveness of the two most common arrays applied to terrestrial tetrapods

Biodiversity inventories are well acknowledged as key to conservation planning. One widely used method for sampling terrestrial fauna is traps with drift fences. Such drift fences, however, may be configured in several arrays, varying the height, length of the fence, space between conjugated traps (e.g., buckets or funnels), and it can be arranged in linear (I) or radial (Y) formats. Consequently, some criticism arose questioning which drift fence arrangement should be employed. Therefore, we made use of geometrical models to test the probability of capturing terrestrial tetrapods (as model organisms) using traps associated along with both I and Y drift fence arrays. With distances varying from 8 to 100m from the fence, the capturing rate of the I format was in average 1.16 times higher than the Y format. Besides this, we also present data that may enable field ecologists to better decide the minimum distance between two traps with drift fences, ensuring accurate statistics. Correct decisions in ecological and management studies may prevent wastes and fundament efficient conservation policies.

Shrew response to variable woody debris retention: Implications for sustainable forest bioenergy

Shrews are integral components of forest food webs and may rely on downed woody debris to provide microhabitats that satisfy high moisture and metabolic requirements. However, woody biomass harvests glean downed woody debris to use as a bioenergy feedstock. Biomass Harvesting Guidelines (BHGs) provide guidance on the amount and distribution of downed woody debris retained after harvest to ensure ecological sustainability of woody biomass harvesting and limit detrimental effects on wildlife. However, the success of Biomass Harvesting Guidelines at reaching sustainability goals, including conservation of wildlife habitat, has not been tested in an operational setting. Thus, we compared shrew captures among six woody biomass harvesting treatments in pine plantations in North Carolina, USA from April to August 2011–2014 (n=4) and Georgia, USA from April to August 2011–2013 (n=4). Treatments included: (1) woody biomass harvest with no BHGs; (2) 15% retention with woody biomass dispersed; (3) 15% retention with woody biomass clustered; (4) 30% retention with woody biomass dispersed; (5) 30% retention with woody biomass clustered; and (6) no woody biomass harvested. We sampled shrews with drift fence arrays and compared relative abundance of shrews among treatments using analysis of variance. Additionally, we used general linear regression models to evaluate the influence of downed woody debris volume and vegetation structure on shrew capture success at each drift fence for species with >100 captures/state/year. In 53,690 trap nights, we had 1,712 shrew captures representing three species, Cryptotis parva, Blarina carolinensis, and Sorex longirostris. We did not detect consistent differences in shrew relative abundance among woody biomass harvest treatments, but relative abundance of all species increased over time as vegetation became established. In North Carolina, total shrew capture success was negatively related to volume of downed woody debris within 50m of the drift fence array (P=0.05) in 2013 and positively related to bare groundcover in 2013 (P=0.02) and 2014 (P<0.01). In Georgia, total shrew capture success was negatively related to herbaceous groundcover (P<0.01) and leaf litter groundcover (P=0.02) and positively related to woody vegetation groundcover (P<0.01) and vertical vegetation structure (P=0.03) in 2013. Our results suggest that shrews in our study area were associated more with vegetation characteristics than downed woody debris and that woody biomass harvests may have little influence on shrew abundances in the southeastern United States Coastal Plain.

Documenting Extinction in Real Time: Decline of the Houston Toad on a Primary Recovery Site

Abstract The Houston toad Bufo (Anaxyrus) houstonensis is a federally endangered amphibian endemic to east central Texas and is primarily found in the Lost Pines ecoregion. In 2010, we became cautiously optimistic regarding the recovery of the species on the Griffith League Ranch, one of the toad's primary recovery sites, after an unusually successful reproductive season. Subsequently, the extreme drought throughout Texas deepened, culminating in the fall 2011 high-severity wildfires throughout the Lost Pines ecoregion. After the drought and wildfires, we continued to intensively monitor Houston toads via anuran call surveys, drift fence arrays, and visual observations of reproduction. Our objective was to investigate the dynamics of the Houston toad population on the Griffith League Ranch during these dramatic impacts to its habitat and to discuss the potential for Houston toad recovery in the ecoregion. In summary, both a simulation model and our field monitoring data suggest the Houston toad population on the Griffith League Ranch is at critically low numbers and may be extirpated in the near future if human-mediated recovery strategies are not continued and refined. We do not discern any evidence to suggest the 2011 wildfires have had any direct detrimental impacts on subsequent Houston toad population dynamics. Still, high-resolution data will be needed in the future to quantify how the wildfires affected Houston toad viability over the medium and long term.

Pit B or not Pit B? The pitfall array is the question

Pitfall trapping is a long established method for trapping terrestrial vertebrates globally. Many variations in bucket and drift fence arrays are used. Recent survey guidelines have been published for Queensland and the Northern Territory. In Queensland a “T” pattern is recommended, and we used data collected over five years to assess whether the use of this array, with the addition of a central bucket (Pit B), results in more captures, particularly in the central bucket. A total of 263 sites representing 1052 bucket samples were examined and the differences in capture abundance in bucket location was tested using analysis of variance. Pitfall bucket location significantly affected the captures of Dasyuridae, Muridae, Agamidae, Pygopodidae, Scincidae (P<0.1), and mean abundance was highest in the central Pit B except for Agamidae. There was also significant variation in abundance across habitat type for these families, excluding Dasyuridae, but including Gekkonidae. We conclude that having a central bucket where drift fences join can increase trap success, and this is a function of effective trapping area (i.e. catchment of animal activity and length of drift fence per bucket). Increased captures may have some relationship to habitat type (i.e. small mammals more abundant in grassland habitat). Though this particular array has some benefits in increasing trap success, the use of multiple survey techniques is recommended for any thorough fauna inventory.

Terrestrial salamander abundance on reclaimed mountaintop removal mines

Mountaintop removal mining, a large-scale disturbance affecting vegetation, soil structure, and topography, converts landscapes from mature forests to extensive grassland and shrubland habitats. We sampled salamanders using drift-fence arrays and coverboard transects on and near mountaintop removal mines in southern West Virginia, USA, during 2000–2002. We compared terrestrial salamander relative abundance and species richness of un-mined, intact forest with habitats on reclaimed mountaintop removal mines (reclaimed grassland, reclaimed shrubland, and fragmented forest). Salamanders within forests increased in relative abundance with increasing distance from reclaimed mine edge. Reclaimed grassland and shrubland habitats had lower relative abundance and species richness than forests. Characteristics of reclaimed habitats that likely contributed to lower salamander abundance included poor soils (dry, compacted, little organic matter, high rock content), reduced vertical structure of vegetation and little tree cover, and low litter and woody debris cover. Past research has shown that salamander populations reduced by clearcutting may rebound in 15–24 years. Time since disturbance was 7–28 years in reclaimed habitats on our study areas and salamander populations had not reached levels found in adjacent mature forests. Published 2013. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.

Initial effects of woody biomass removal and intercropping of switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) on herpetofauna in eastern north Carolina

Forests are potential sources for a wide range of alternative fuels, which could reduce dependency on fossil fuels and carbon emissions, but sustainability of producing biofuels from forests has not been well-studied. Therefore, we investigated effects of woody biomass harvest, intercropping perennial grasses, and combinations of these treatments on herpetofauna in loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) plantations in a randomized and replicated field experiment in eastern North Carolina, USA. We sampled amphibians and small reptiles with drift fence arrays from April to July during 1 and 2 years after treatment establishment. We had 425 captures of 15 species of herpetofauna across the 2 sampling seasons, but did not observe large general effects of biomass removal or planting of switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) in pine plantations on detection, diversity, or relative abundance. However, planned contrasts indicated Simpson's index of diversity was greater in plots managed for switchgrass only compared with pine plantations during year 2, and that captures of southern toads (Anaxyrus terrestris) were less common in switchgrass plots than in pine plantations intercropped with switchgrass. Neither intercropping switchgrass with pine nor removal of harvest residuals caused herpetofauna diversity or abundance of common species to differ from traditional plantation management during the first 2 years following treatment establishment. With the exception of switchgrass-only plots, which had lower herpetofauna species evenness, the potential practices we considered for biofuels production are unlikely to have short-term effects on herpetofauna relative to traditional pine management. Future research should monitor herpetofauna through succession and consider landscape-scale effects and other potential feedstock sources. © 2013 The Wildlife Society.

Microhabitat use and migration distance of an endangered grassland amphibian

There have been many studies of microhabitat use in forest-dwelling amphibians, but very few for grassland specialists. This study examines habitat use of the endangered California tiger salamander (Ambystoma californiense), which inhabits grasslands in California’s Great Central Valley. We used an extensive drift fence array to capture most of the surface-active salamanders over 2years at two adjacent breeding ponds in a natural prairie ecosystem. Model selection using simultaneous autoregressive models was used to generate models describing the microhabitat use of each of three salamander age classes (adults, juveniles, and metamorphs). Adults tended to use microhabitats with flood intolerant vegetation and juveniles were most often found at higher elevation sites; both of these surprising results suggest that California tiger salamanders favor the driest microhabitats in the prairie. For certain comparisons, significant interaction terms indicated that there is both temporal and spatial heterogeneity in the distribution of A. californiense with respect to proximity to breeding ponds. A literature review indicated that A. californiense have the second longest migration distance reported for any salamander (median=556m) and the longest among ambystomatids. Our results emphasize the importance of replicating landscape ecological studies over sites and years, particularly for endangered taxa where effective management hinges on understanding the variability in habitat use across time and space. They also suggest that habitat use of grassland amphibians may be fundamentally different from that of forest-dwelling amphibians in that they require larger terrestrial buffers and use different microhabitats within those buffers.

Factors Associated with Amphibian Detection and Occupancy in Southern Michigan Forests

Abstract Large-scale amphibian conservation often relies on remotely sensed data to describe spatial patterns in occupancy. Commonly used data include ownership, forest type, soil class, and proximity of wetlands. We evaluated the influence of these variables on terrestrial amphibian occupancy in southern Michigan. We trapped amphibians using drift-fence arrays in 82 forest patches and estimated detection probabilities for all captured species. Ten species were captured, but only three were detected at levels suitable for occupancy modeling. We concluded that drift-fence arrays alone were not sufficient for adequately detecting the majority of terrestrial amphibians. The best detection models for American Toad (Anaxyrus americanus), Wood Frog (Lithobates sylvaticus), and Spring Peeper (Pseudacris crucifer) consistently included a positive relationship with temperature and precipitation. Detection-adjusted occupancy models for the three anurans indicated relatively high occupancy (>0.43). Ownership, forest...

An Improved Funnel Trap for Drift-Fence Surveys

The objective of this study was to investigate effectiveness of a common drift-fence trap, the single-funnel trap, in comparison with a new one-way double-funnel design. We expected this new design to decrease escapes over standard trapping techniques and, therefore, increase efficiency of sampling using drift fences. Five 15-m, linear, drift-fence arrays with three 15-m, Y-shaped arrays were placed at two field sites in central Texas and a single 15-m, linear array was placed at a field site at Seabrook Island, South Carolina. Each array contained an equal number of the single-funnel and double-funnel traps. One-way double-funnel traps caught and retained significantly more reptiles, total herpetofauna, and total vertebrates than did single-funnel traps. Our results indicated that double-funnel traps offer an improved trapping technique when compared with the typical single-funnel trap.

Habitat relationships of reptiles in pine beetle disturbed forests of Alabama, U.S.A. with guidelines for a modified drift-fence sampling method

Abstract Understanding vertebrate habitat relationships is important to promote management strategies for the longterm conservation of many species. Using a modified drift fence method, we sampled reptiles and compared habitat variables within the William B. Bankhead National Forest (BNF) in Alabama, U.S.A from April 2005 to June 2006. We captured 226 individual reptiles representing 19 species during 564 total trap nights. We used canonical correspondence analysis to examine habitat associations for the reptiles sampled and we detected a distinct habitat gradient ranging from sites with greater litter depth and percent canopy cover to more open sites with greater woody, herbaceous, and coarse woody debris (CWD) coverage, and CWD volume. Little brown skinks Scincella lateralis and eastern worm snakes Carphophis a. amoenus were associated with sites with greater litter depth and canopy cover, whereas eastern fence lizards Sceloporus undulatus, copperheads Agkistrodon contortrix, and gray ratsnakes Pantherophis spiloides were associated with sites possessing greater CWD coverage and volume. We found that disturbances due to the southern pine beetle Dendroctonus frontalis were likely important for influencing reptile distributions through the creation of canopy gaps and fallen coarse woody debris. Compared to other studies, our modified drift-fence trap technique was successful for sampling larger snake species (66 snakes in 564 trap nights). We have also provided detailed schematics for constructing drift fence array and box traps used in this study.

Efficacy of Sampling Techniques for Determining Species Richness Estimates of Reptiles and Amphibians

The ability to detect reptiles and amphibians is influenced by environmental and behavioural variables and detection probabilities, but studies to determine herpetofauna species richness often employ only a small number of sampling techniques, primarily drift fence arrays, visual encounter surveys, and coverboards (i.e. primary techniques). However, using only two or three sampling techniques can underestimate species richness. To evaluate the efficacy of sampling methodologies in determining the species richness of herpetofauna, we employed 11 different sampling techniques. We hypothesized that adding standardized road searches, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) piping grids, line transects, auditory surveys (i.e. secondary techniques), opportunistic encounters, aquatic funnel traps, crayfish traps and basking traps (i.e. tertiary techniques) would better portray species richness. Observed species richness (Sabs, species physically detected or observed), Chao2 estimates of species richness (S), unique species captured (i.e. species detected by only one technique), cost, and cost‐per‐species‐captured for individual techniques and categories (i.e. primary, secondary and tertiary) were used to determine efficacy. Primary capture methodologies detected 13 species (S = 14). Secondary and tertiary sampling techniques captured 18 and 24 species, respectively (S = 29 and 25). All sampling methodologies combined captured 33 species for a Chao2 estimate of 34. More unique species were captured by tertiary techniques than by primary or secondary methodologies. Costs for primary techniques were much higher than for secondary and tertiary methodologies. To better determine species richness, we recommend that future research incorporate multiple sampling methodologies in addition to more common techniques.