Dough Stickiness Research Articles

INVESTIGATION OF THE FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF WAXI WHEAT FLOUR

The results of the research on the functional properties of waxy wheat flour, obtained from the spring waxy wheat grain of the Biskvitna variety, adapted for agro-climatic conditions of the Kharkiv region, in comparison with white wheat flour, are presented. It is found that waxy wheat flour contains 16.8% less raw gluten than the reference sample, the gluten is 18.8% less elastic and 21.4% more stretchy, has a light gray color and can be attributed to the II group of quality. Waxy wheat flour has a 1.8 times higher water-holding capacity, its starch begins to gelatinize at a lower temperature, while the maximum viscosity of the waxy wheat flour starch paste is almost 1.6 times higher than that of the reference sample. It is established that falling number of waxy wheat flour is only 68 s that more than 5 times lower than that one of wheat flour. The model dough system prepared from the waxy wheat flour has a 6.9% better lifting power in comparison to the system prepared from the wheat flour. Baking tests for sponge cakes, biscuits, fruitcakes and muffins with the substitution 25.0 to 75.0% of white flour to waxy wheat flour was performed. With an increasing of the dosage of waxy wheat flour a tendency of the increasing of the dough stickiness in all samples tested was observed. The baked goods tested were distinguished by good quality indicators, although in fruitcakes and muffins with a dosage of waxy wheat flour of more than 50.0%, the formation of large gas cells unevenly distributed in the crumb was noticed. Addition of 25.0% of waxy wheat flour causes an increase of the specific volume and porosity of sponge cakes by 11.1 and 9.3% respectively. With a further increase in the dosage of waxy wheat flour, the specific volume and porosity of the samples tested are verging to the reference sample. All samples of fruitcakes and muffins were not differ significantly in terms of specific volume and porosity. According to the results of the research conducted, it is suggested to use waxy wheat flour, obtained from the grain of Biskvitna variety, for the production of sponge cakes and biscuits in an amount of up to 75.0%, for fruitcakes and muffins - in an amount of up to 25.0% instead of wheat flour.

Multi-scale dough adhesion analysis: Relation between laboratory scale, pilot scale and human sensory.

Undesired dough adhesion is still a challenge during the production of baked goods. There are various methods for determining the adhesive texture properties of dough. In the majority of scientific papers, dough stickiness is measured analytically by the force-distance recording of dough detachment. In this study, we describe a new multi-scale approach to compare dough adhesion phenomena in a laboratory, pilot sale and human sensory assessment. In it, the adhesive material properties of dough were investigated using a pilot scale toppling device representing dough adhesion behavior in the production process, in the laboratory by texture analysis with the Chen-Hoseney method and furthermore with a new, implemented non-oral human sensory analysis. To simulate different dough adhesion behavior, the dough mechanical and adhesion properties were varied by applying dough-modifying enzymes and different dough storage times. The structural changes in the different wheat dough system were compared by rheological characterization. By characterizing the different adhesion phenomena of the doughs, the sample with bacterial xylanase showed the highest values after 80 min of storage time in all three methods. Correlation analysis revealed a strong relationship between the detachment time (pilot scale) and human sensory assessment attributes (Force R= 0.81, Time R= 0.87, Distance R= 0.92, Stickiness R= 0.80) after 80 min of storage time. Even though human sensory assessment showed limits in the detectability of differences in dough adhesion behavior compared to the Chen-Hoseney method, it was better suited to predict machinability.

Influence of α-amylase, xylanase and cellulase on the rheological properties of bread dough enriched with oat bran

A better understanding of dough rheology during processing is crucial in the bakery industry, since quality attributes of the final product are influenced by those properties. In this study, we investigated the effects of xylanase, α-amylase and cellulase on the rheological properties of bread dough enriched in oat bran. A DoughLAB was used to measure the mixing characteristics of dough. According to the results, adding a single enzyme did not significantly affect the water absorption, development time, or stability of oat bran dough. In contrast, when blended enzymes were used at high concentrations (10, 120, and 60 ppm), the water absorption, development time, and stability of the oat bran dough were significantly reduced compared to using the single enzyme (62.1%, 7.1 and 6.6 min). It was found that combining α-amylase, xylanase and cellulase resulted in better extensibility and stickiness (16.5 mm and 60.8 g) of oat bran dough than using these enzymes individually. As a result, α-amylase, xylanase and cellulase complemented each other in determining the rheology of bread dough.

Effects of different gelatinization degrees of potato flour on gluten network integrity and dough stickiness

Potato flour with different gelatinization degrees was prepared and the properties of potato flour - wheat flour dough were compared to investigate the reason why dough with more than 30 g/100 g potato flakes becomes sticky. The results showed that the water absorption capacity of potato flakes was the highest, which was 2.2-fold higher than that of gluten and 3.4-fold higher than that of wheat starch. Dough microstructure analysis indicated that competitive water absorption of potato starch and gluten protein led to the discontinuous gluten structure and more exposed gliadin which is responsible for dough stickiness. The gliadin content (obtained at a single elution) in potato flakes-wheat flour dough was 200–400 g/100 g higher than that of others. Two-step kneading method was applied to increase the gluten integrity and reduce gliadin leaching, which reduced the dough stickiness from 31.86 g to 23.07 g. This study demonstrated that the content of gliadin was more responsible for stickiness of the dough than gelatinized starch, and two-step kneading method can be employed to improve the properties of food prepared with potato flakes.

Functionalisation of wheat and oat bran using single-strain fermentation and its impact on techno-functional and nutritional properties of biscuits

The adequate intake of dietary fibre is linked to several health benefits, for example, reducing the risk of non-communicable diseases, such as cardiovascular disease and diabetes. However, the population’s intake of dietary fibre is below the dosage recommended by the World Health Organisation. The incorporation of fibre ingredients, such as bran, in cereal based products affects the techno-functional and sensory properties, resulting in inferior product quality. To compensate quality loss, wheat bran (WB) and oat bran (OB) were fermented using the lactic acid bacterium strain Leuconostoc citreum TR116 prior to the application in a biscuit system. Two types of fermentation, one without any addition of sugars (FB) and one with the supplementation of 5% fructose and 5% sucrose to trigger the production of mannitol (FB +), were conducted and sugar and acid profiles as well as pH and total titratable acids (TTA) were evaluated. Fermented WB showed a higher TTA (+ 58%) compared to fermented OB. Furthermore, FOB + resulted in higher microbial cell count and higher residual sugars after 48 h of fermentation. The application of fermented brans in a biscuit system showed a decrease in dough stickiness (− 41.7%) and an increase in dough hardness (+ 32%). The type of bran (WB and OB) as well as the type of fermentation (FB or FB +) influenced the results of biscuit dough and biscuit quality (p < 0.005). Fermentation increased biscuit spreading, influenced biscuit snap force, enhanced crunchiness and colour formation, and lowered the predicted glycaemic index. Fermented OB (FOB +) resulted in a sensory profile comparable to the control.

The effects of Cephalaria syriaca flour on physical, rheological and textural properties of sunn pest (Eurygaster integriceps) damaged wheat dough and bread

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of Cephalaria syriaca flour (CSF; 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5%) on the physical, textural and rheological characteristics of dough and bread obtained from sunn pest-damaged wheat (SPDW; 5, 10 and 15%). An increased CSF level significantly decreased the stickiness and volume loss values of dough and the firmness and chewiness values of bread for all SPDW levels. The dough stickiness and bread firmness values were considerably increased by the addition of SPDW at the 15% level (1.05 N and 29.76 N), whereas these values were reduced by the addition of 1.5% CSF (0.6439 N and 22.56 N). In general, the stress relaxation, gas retention and gluten extensibility parameters of dough; and the specific volume, colour, cohesiveness, springiness and resilience values of bread significantly increased depending on the increasing level of CSF. Especially, the 1.5% CSF level significantly improved the quality of the dough and breads. The results of the present study revealed that CSF addition to SPDW flour positively affected the stickiness, gas retention and stress relaxation of dough and the specific volume and instrumental textural properties of bread.

Effect of sucrose replacement and resistant starch addition on textural properties of gluten-free doughs and biscuits

There is a need to develop low-sugar healthy products. The aim of this research was to evaluate the effect of maltitol and inulin as sucrose replacement alongside resistant starch (RS) and green banana flour (GBF) on the texture and physical properties of gluten-free doughs and biscuits formulated with buckwheat, sorghum and lentil flours. These properties are important to predict the dough workability, how easy the biscuits could be mass-produced and determine consumers’ acceptability. Results showed that partial and complete substitution of sucrose could be achieved and appropriate concentration of resistant starch or green banana flour contributed to better dough and biscuit texture. RS content showed the biggest influence on dough stickiness and biscuit hardness and could be used to correct the negative effect of sucrose replacement and to maximise both the dough processability and biscuit acceptability.

Pre-Hydrated Berry Pomace in Wheat Bread: An Approach Considering Requisite Water in Fiber Enrichment.

Using blackcurrant pomace, for instance, in bread, prevents wasting this by-product of fruit juice production, thereby also taking advantage of its nutritional benefits. This study investigated the effects of blackcurrant pomace incorporation in wheat dough and the quality of the resulting breads. Two concepts were addressed: (a) adjusting the water level based on the dough consistency and (b) preparing pre-hydrated pomace by applying the determined water content prior to dough preparation and using it for bread making. Samples with wholegrain spelt flour were used for additional comparison. This study revealed that instant pomace incorporation with an adjusted water level diminished the dough stickiness and baking loss, but resulted in stiffer dough with delayed proofing and a decreased bread volume. The kneading resistance pointed to continued swelling after kneading, concomitant with a lower amount of available free water. Counteracting the competition for water of the flour components and pomace fiber by applying pre-hydrated pomace turned out to be successful. The deteriorating effects were reduced to a larger extent by pomace hydrated in hot water. Despite a similar composition, the products of wholegrain spelt flour deviated from the pomace formulations as well as from wheat breads (producing the highest water absorption but smallest loaves). As the water absorption of pomace fiber largely influences the product properties, a pre-hydration of pomace to be included in wheat dough can be highly recommended to enhance processing properties and product quality.

Effect of the addition of alhydwan flour on the physicochemical, functional properties and microstructure of wheat bread

To discover more innovative, high-nutraceutical foods that can be used in other food production systems, this research was carried out to investigate the sensory properties and physical-chemical of functional bread by enhancing alhydwan. Alhydwan contains a high amount of dietary fiber (36.13%), protein (14.60%), ash (6.88%), and fat (11.49%) as well as substantial amounts of unsaturated fatty acids; 74.63% the fatty acids. We assessed the impact of supplanting of 5,10 and 15% of wheat flour by alhydwan flour on bread dough rheology and bread quality. With increased levels of alhydwan, a positive increase in dough stickiness and water absorption was observed. The softness of the crumb increased with the alhydwan level. At the alhydwan supplement of 10 g/100 g, the highest sensory assessment score was recorded. The microstructure of alhydwan enhanced formulation showed the starch granules more advanced degrees of gelatinization. FTER examination of alhydwan revealed remarkable differences alhydwan flour were stronger than those in the control. Our studies showed that alhydwan can be integrated into bread to enhance the quality of bread and dough rheology, which can be used to enhance functional properties of bread, moreover, addition of alhydwan to the cereal flour may affect the characteristics of processed food and can help to maintain the smooth texture of the resultant products.

Optimizing the Processing Factor and Formulation of Oat-Based Cookie Dough for Enhancement in Stickiness and Moisture Content Using Response Surface Methodology and Superimposition

Despite the utilization of dusting flour and oil to reduce dough stickiness during the production process in food industry, they do not effectively help in eliminating the problem. Stickiness remains the bane of the production of bakery and confectionery products, including cookies. In addition, the high moisture content of cookie dough is unduly important to obtain a high breaking and compression strengths (cookies with high breaking tolerance). This study was conducted in light of insufficient research hitherto undertaken on the utilization of response surface methodology and superimposition to enhance the stickiness and moisture content of quick oat-based cookie dough. The study aims at optimizating, validating and superimposing the best combination of factors, to produce the lowest stickiness and highest moisture content in cookie dough. In addition, the effect of flour content and resting time on the stickiness and moisture content of cookie dough was also investigated, and microstructure analysis conducted. The central composite design (CCD) technique was employed and 39 runs were generated by CCD based on two factors with five levels, which comprised flour content (50, 55, 60, 65, and 70%), resting time (10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 min) and three replications. Results from ANOVA showed that all factors were statistically significant at p &lt; 0.05. Flour content between 56% and 62%, and resting time within 27 and 50 min, resulted in dough with high stickiness. High-region moisture content was observed for flour content between 60% and 70%, and within 10 and 15 min of resting time. The optimized values for flour content (V1) = 67% and resting time (V2) = 10 min. The predicted model (regression coefficient model) was found to be accurate in predicting the optimum value of factors. The experimental validation showed the average relative deviation for stickiness and moisture content was 8.54% and 1.44%, respectively. The superimposition of the contour plots was successfully developed to identify the optimum region for the lowest stickiness and highest moisture content which were at 67–70% flour content and 10–15 min resting time.

Pasting, viscoelastic and rheological characterization of gluten free (cereals, legume and underutilized) flours with reference to wheat flour.

In this study, the rheological properties of dough prepared from gluten free flours (rice, sorghum, moong, water chestnut and unripe banana) and wheat dough were determined. Pasting properties and viscoelastic properties were analyzed using rheometer and dough rheology experiment was performed on texture analyzer. Water chestnut flour exhibited highest peak viscocity (22.6Pas), trough viscosity (12.1), breakdown viscosity (10.5Pas) and final viscosity (14.92Pas) than others while unripe banana flour showed highest setback viscosity (4.54Pas). Pasting temperature was found to be highest for sorghum followed by wheat and others. The highest elastic (G') and loss (G″) module were obtained for moong flour. Wheat and gluten free flours were found to exhibit thixotropic effect. Moong flour dough was found to be the stickiest (dough stickiness 57.83g) followed by WCF, UBF, wheat, rice and sorghum. Similar trend was observed for dough strength. These flours can be proved as key materials for the gluten-free products market and can provide additional inexpensive advantage to the food processing industry.

Effect of salts from the lyotropic series on the handling properties of dough prepared from two hard red spring wheat cultivars of differing quality

The influence of select salts from the lyotropic series (NH4Cl, KCl, NaCl, MgCl2, CaCl2, and MgSO4) on the rheology and stickiness of dough prepared from a strong (Pembina) and a weak (Harvest) hard red spring wheat flour were examined at a 1 and 2% salt levels, with water mobility and water association with different dough components also being assessed at the 1% salt level. Overall, Pembina was found to develop stronger gluten networks that were more resilient than those of Harvest as evident from a lower tan δ and less compliance during shear creep recovery rheology. However, the effect of salt-type differed based on cultivar. Pembina showed lower dough stickiness than Harvest in all cases. NH4Cl decreased dough stickiness the most for both cultivars. The use of alternative salts affected the association of water with the starch-fraction and gluten-fraction in doughs, and this effect was cultivar-dependent.

Bioactive constituents, microstructural and nutritional quality characterisation of peanut flat bread

Flat bread is a popular staple food consumed in India prepared from whole wheat. This research is an attempt to add peanut (Arachis hypogaea) flour (10–40%) prepared by processing the peanut meal in wheat flour to enhance bioactive constituents, textural and nutritional properties of the resultant flat bread. Stickiness and spreadability of dough was slightly increased with increasing levels of peanut flour (PF). Flat bread substituted with PF exhibited significantly higher total phenolic content and total flavonoid content, antioxidant activities by scavenging DPPH and ABTS free radicals than control. Farinograph, textural and sensory assessment of flat bread, recommended substitution of 30% PF. Flat bread prepared from this level of PF had superior protein (22.89%), ash (9.34%), fat (3.52%) and mineral content. An enhanced in vitro protein digestibility (85.73%), higher dietary fiber content (8.60%) and lower glycemic index (42.39) were recorded as compared to that of control flat bread. The microstructure of flat bread containing 30% PF showed disrupted gluten matrix with protein aggregates whereas in case of control flat bread aggregates of starch granules overlapping one another were observed. The X-ray diffraction spectra showed V-type polymorphism with one diffraction peak at 2θ = 20.1°, displaying a lower degree of crystallinity.

Potassium bicarbonate improves dough and cookie characteristics through influencing physicochemical and conformation properties of wheat gluten

Baking soda (NaHCO3) has critical technological functions in cookie products. Health concern on excessive sodium consumption is increasing; therefore, it is necessary to explore NaHCO3 alternatives, such as KHCO3, for bakery products. This study investigated the impact of KHCO3 on the technological behaviors of cookie dough and end-uses in comparison with control samples prepared with NaHCO3 and explore the changes of physicochemical and conformation properties of soft wheat gluten during the process. Dough rheological measurements demonstrated that addition of KHCO3 reduced dough stickiness, and adding KHCO3 achieved similar dough and baking performances as using NaHCO3, which were partially attributed to the decrease of gliadin to glutenin ratio, changes of secondary structure, and intensive aggregation of gluten by introducing KHCO3. Cookie sensory attributes were also not adversely affected by using KHCO3. Therefore, partially replacing NaHCO3 with KHCO3 in cookie products can be an effective approach for sodium reduction.

Effect of exopolysaccharides produced by Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis on the processing properties of wheat doughs

The effect of crude exopolysaccharides (EPS) of Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis strains on processing properties of wheat doughs was investigated and compared to the commercial available hydrocolloids guar gum and xanthan using straight dough method. In addition, the effect of swelling process occurring during fermentation and of in situ formation of levan on dough and bread properties was determined. The doughs supplemented with levan showed higher water absorption and lower stickiness than those supplemented with guar gum and xanthan. However, F(max) and l(max) resulting from extensibility measurements as well as peak viscosity during gelatinization were less affected. The use of chemically acidified sponge doughs resulted in increased stickiness and changes in the extension properties of the wheat doughs with decreasing pH. These negative effects were compensated by the addition of crude levan extracts. Addition of sourdoughs markedly decreased their stickiness but not their F(max) and l(max) resulting from extensibility measurements, as compared with chemically acidified sponge doughs. Enhanced in situ production of levan increased dough stickiness as well as increased resistance and decreased extensibility. This effect could be traced back to an enrichment of sugar or metabolites due to an altered metabolism of the bacteria. Breads produced from straight doughs supplemented with levan showed higher volumes as compared to commercial hydrocolloids.

Effects of fermentation on the rheological characteristics of dough and the quality of steamed bread

During the production of steamed bread, fermentation is a critical step to obtain a final product with the desired characteristics. The quality of the final steamed bread is significantly affected by the properties of the dough. This study investigated the effects of fermentation on the rheological properties, state of water, microstructure of the dough, and the quality of steamed bread. After fermentation, the steamed bread dough exhibited higher stickiness, and was more easily to break during uniaxial extension. Biaxial extension tests revealed a significant decrease in biaxial extensional viscosity from 110,118 (0 min) to 11,544 Pa·S (80 min) at the strain rate of 0.04/S. The properties of the dough matrix were closely related to the fermentation time and the quality of the steamed bread is significant affected by the fermentation time. The results is valuable to provide theoretical basis for steamed bread making under precise control. Practical applications Fermentation is a key step in the production of steamed bread. This study (a) investigated the rheological properties of Chinese steamed bread dough during fermentation, including dough stickiness, uniaxial extensibility, and biaxial extension; (b) evaluated the effects of fermentation on the microstructure of fermented dough and steamed bread quality; and (c) investigated the relationship between the fermentation process and the quality of steamed bread. The information provided in this work will serve as the basis for further study on physical properties of fermented dough. The results is very valuable to provide theoretical basis for determining quality during the industrial production of steamed bread. This potentially leads to improved quality of steamed bread under precise control.

The incorporation of sourdough in sugar-reduced biscuits: a promising strategy to improve techno-functional and sensory properties

The demand for sugar-reduced, low-sugar, or even sugar-free food products is increasing. Sweet bakery products are the second main source of added sugar after sugary drinks. The reduction of sugar causes a loss of product quality, since sugar contributes to structure and flavour. The most common sugar replacers on the market are polyols, which act as sweet bulking agents. However, alternatives, which can be considered as ‘clean-label’ are in high demand. Sourdough technology was applied using the bi-functional lactic acid bacteria strain Leuconostoc citreum TR116. This strain is able to produce mannitol, which contributes to sweetness, and/or exopolysaccharides to compensate structure loss in sugar-reduced products. Besides the full-sugar biscuit (C1), biscuits reduced in sugar by 75% by wheat starch (C2) or by commercially available mannitol (C3) were considered as controls. Wheat starch as a sugar replacer created a lower biscuit firmness (− 10.7 N), while mannitol increased the hardness significantly (+ 12.9 N). Both sugar replacers caused less biscuit spreading and a poorer sensory profiles. The addition of sourdough (5% or 10%) in a sugar-reduced biscuit by wheat starch (C2) improved the viscoelastic properties, dough stickiness and dough hardness, as well as biscuit firmness. Furthermore, it contributed to colour (lowered the ΔE value) and increased sweetness and flavour intensity (+ 140%; + 139%). The predicted GI of C2-biscuits (73.5) were lower than C3-biscuits (80.8). Sourdough did not influence the release of reducing sugars during digestion. In conclusion, 10% sourdough incorporation represents a useful tool to overcome quality loss caused by the reduction of sugar by improving texture, taste and flavour.

Effect of physicochemical and rheological properties of flour from different local wheat varieties on the quality of varanphal: an Indian traditional product.

Varanphal is an Indian traditional product which is similar to pasta. The suitability of four local varieties of wheat flour (Lokwan, Sharbati, MP cross S.H.R. and MP Lokwan) was determined by evaluating their physicochemical and rheological properties. The rheological properties such as farinographic characteristics, dough hardness, stickiness, and spreadability of dough were also evaluated for the same. Flour and dough properties of wheat varieties were correlated with varanphal quality characteristics. The correlation coefficient data indicated that amongst the physicochemical properties of flour such as protein, dry gluten, and damaged starch content were the indices in predicting the varanphal quality. The rheological properties such as farinograph water absorption, dough stability, hardness and spreadability were found to be highly correlated with varanphal quality. The strong relationship were observed between dry gluten content with spreadability, L* value flour with dough stickiness, dough hardness with protein content, dough hardness with overall acceptibility and cohesiveness of dough with the cohesiveness of varnaphal.

INFLUENCE OF ADDITIVE PREMIX, WHEY PROTEINS, EXTRUDED AND GERMINATED FLOUR ON GLUTEN FREE DOUGH RHEOLOGICAL PARAMETERS AND FLATBREAD CHARACTERISTICS: A MIXTURE DESIGN APPROACH

Additives, elastic proteins and flour modification treatments such as germination and extrusion help in the enhancement of the viscoelastic as well as subjective properties of a dough system and flatbread characteristics. Hence, in the present study efforts were made to substitute the gluten free formulation with modified flours as well as elastic proteins and additives. Mixture design approach was used for the purpose using central composite design. Response variables were dough rheological parameters like stickiness and strength along with flatbread characteristics like L value, tear force and extensibility. Regression equations were developed to predict the responses of dough rheological parameters and flatbread characteristics. 3D plots were drawn to understand the behavior of these responses. Optimised levels were 1.5% additive premix, 10% extruded flour, 20% germinated flour and 5% whey protein that resulted in 39.09 g dough stickiness, 2.14 g dough strength, 40.9 L value, 224.67 g tear force and 1.70 mm extensibility. Principle component analysis showed significant relationship between dough rheological parameters (dough stickiness, dough strength) and flatbread characteristics (L value, tear force extensibility).

Effect of enzymatic crosslinking on the handling properties of dough as a function of NaCl levels for CWRS varieties, Pembina and Harvest.

The effects of transglutaminase (TG) and glucose oxidase (GO) on the handling properties of model bread dough were examined at both normal (2% wt. by flour) and reduced (1% wt.) sodium chloride (NaCl) levels using two Canada Western Red Spring (CWRS) cultivars; Pembina and Harvest. The reduction of NaCl level had negative effects on dough rheology and stickiness, however, the inclusion of GO (0.001 and 0.01% by flour weight) or TG (only at the 0.5% by flour weight inclusion) was able to improve dough strength and reduce stickiness. GO appeared to be more effective than TG (at 0.01%) at equivalent concentrations for improving dough-handling properties. Flour cultivar had significant effects; Harvest flour (weaker) was more impacted by salt reduction and enzyme inclusion compared to Pembina flour (stronger). Crosslinking assays showed significant differences in glutenin macropolymer (GMP) content in dough prepared with GO, and dough prepared with different flours. Additionally, significantly fewer free thiol groups were found in dough produced with GO compared to dough without any enzymes and those with TG. GO appears to have potential for use as a bread improver to reduce stickiness and improve the strength of bread dough produced at lower salt concentrations, especially for dough prepared with weaker flour cultivars.