Double-difference Estimator Research Articles

Effect of access to microfinance services on the performance of microenterprises in Abia State, Nigeria

The study examined the effect of microfinance services on the performance of microenterprises in Abia State, Nigeria. A total of 240 entrepreneurs were randomly selected, with 120 being beneficiaries of microfinance services and 120 not being beneficiaries. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire and focused group discussions. The data collected were then analyzed using descriptive statistics, logit regression, and the double difference estimator. The result showed that the majority of beneficiaries (55%) and non beneficiaries (72%) were male, and married. The respondents were generally young, with a mean age of 40 and 44 years, and had a high level of education, with 82% being literate. Moreover, 69% of the respondents had a large household size. Microfinance services were accessible to all individuals with business interests, with the beneficiaries having more access. Most of the beneficiaries (97%) met the criteria for accessing microfinance services. The study also found that microfinance services improved the performance of both beneficiaries and non beneficiaries, with a performance difference of N 15,002.00. The study recommended that priority should be given to male, young, married, educated, and cooperative members with business experience in credit selection, to ensure effective use of microfinance services and to boost entrepreneurial activities. Additionally, the study suggested that microfinance institutions should consider locating their offices in areas that promote business and improve access to their services. Furthermore, the operators of microfinance institutions in the state should strictly adhere to the criteria for accessing microfinance services to maintain financial standards and include genuine clients.

What About Offering a Financial Incentive Directly to Clinical Units to Encourage the Use of Biosimilars? Results of a Two-Year National Experiment in France.

Regarding the low penetration of biosimilars in the French market, in 2018, the government introduced two mutually exclusive financial incentives to increase biosimilar use. They redirect 20% (general case) or 30% (experimental case) of the price difference between the reference product and its biosimilar to hospitals for every biosimilar delivered in retail pharmacies from these hospital prescriptions. The experimental case specifically targets prescribing clinical units. Our study aimed to assess whether the new payment scheme closer to physicians (experimental case) improved etanercept biosimilar penetration after 25 months. We evaluated hospital prescriptions using IQVIA Xponent data. The monthly number of etanercept boxes delivered in retail pharmacies was linked to the corresponding hospital prescription. The impact of the experimental case on the etanercept biosimilar rate was assessed by a difference-in-difference method. Among the 39 hospitals studied in the experimental case compared with the 169 belonging to the general case, a similar growing trend of etanercept biosimilar use was observed before October 2018. At the start of the experiment, there was an acceleration of biosimilar penetration in the experimental group, until both groups reached a plateau. A significant double difference estimator of 9.72 percentage points in favor of the experiment confirmed this (p<2.2.10-16). The French experimental incentive appeared to be more effective at increasing biosimilar use. As it is expected to be implemented in all hospitals, the knowledge gained during this testing phase should allow adjustment of some of its terms and increase physician engagement.

Nudging children toward healthier food choices: An experiment combining school and home gardens

School gardens have become a widely used approach to influence children's food knowledge, preferences and choices in low- and high-income countries alike. However, evidence indicates that such programs are more effective at influencing food knowledge and preferences than actual food choices. Such finding may occur because school gardens insufficiently influence the food behavior of parents and because healthy food items are not always available in children's homes. We tested this hypothesis using a one-year cluster randomized controlled trial in Nepal with 15 treatment and 15 control schools and a matched sample of 779 schoolchildren (aged 8–12) and their caregivers. Data were collected before and after the intervention during the 2018–2019 school year. In addition, children's food consumption was monitored using a monthly food logbook. Average treatment effects were quantified with a double-difference estimator. For caregivers, the intervention led to a 26% increase in their food and nutrition knowledge (p < 0.001), a 5% increase in their agricultural knowledge (p = 0.022), a 10% increase in their liking for vegetables (p < 0.001), and a 15% increase in home garden productivity (p = 0.073). For children, the intervention had no discernible effect on food and nutrition knowledge (p = 0.666) but led to a 6% increase in their liking for vegetables (p = 0.070), healthy food practices (p < 0.001), and vegetable consumption (October–December +15%; p = 0.084; January–March +26%; p = 0.017; April–June +26%; p = 0.088). The results therefore indicate both schools and parents matter for nudging children toward healthier food choices.

IMPACT ANALYSIS OF FADAMA III PROJECT IN GOMBE STATE, NIGERIA

This study evaluates the impact of Fadama III project in Gombe State, Nigeria. Multi-stage sampling technique was used to select 120 beneficiaries and 120 non beneficiaries of Fadama III project. Data were collected using structural questionnaire and analyzed using descriptive statistics (percentage change was used to estimate the changes between each period of evaluation) and combination of propensity score matching (PSM) and double difference (DD) estimator to determine average treatment effect (ATE) on project beneficiaries. The result shows that, the value of productive assets increase by 50.18%. The result further shows that income of beneficiaries increased by 51.21% (baseline-midline) and 95.84% (baseline-midline) meaning that Fadama project III has superseded it target of 40% of 75% of all beneficiaries. The overall result indicated that there was a substantial increase in the productivities of both the crop and livestock sub-sectors which increase male and female houselod income by 61% and 33% respectively. Fadama III beneficiaries’ access to extension advisory services contributed to agricultural productivity and income by 10% at baseline, 44% at midline compared to 58% increase contribution in the endline evaluation. Therefore it can be concluded that Fadama III project impacted positively both the intermediate and ultimate target of the project have been adequately met. There is the need for the policy makers/ authorities to consider community-driven development approach for Fadama III project meant to benefit the rural communities more.

Impact of the Purdue Improved Cowpea Storage Technology on the Income of Cowpea Farmers in North Central Nigeria

The objective of the study was to determine the potential impact of Purdue improved cowpea storage (PICS) technology on the income of users in north central states of Nigeria. A multi-stage sampling procedure involved selection of 3 Local Government Areas (LGAs) each from 18 senatorial districts of six states, 108 villages. Thereafter 2,220 cowpea PICs stakeholders comprising 1,240 farmers and 960 traders were randomly selected by balloting technique. The study used primary data and structured questionnaire to interview users and non-users of PICS bag. Descriptive statistics, double difference estimator, propensity score matching (PSM) and logic model were used to analyze the data. The result showed a positive mean difference of ₦1,205.12 per 50 kg bag (p&lt;0.01) in income between users and non-users before and after adoption of PICS technology. The result of logit model revealed that variables age, education status, employment status, income and quantity of cowpea used in the analysis were significant at different level of probability. The PSM adjusted with constant coefficient value of 1.000 was statistically significant at 1% level. Thus, the PICS technology was a better strategy adopted by farmers/traders to increase their income and improve their standard of living. Since majority of farmers and traders are young and educated, trainings, workshops and sensitization should be encouraged. This can be effectively done through Agricultural Development Programmes (ADP), Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and attending farmer’s stakeholders meeting for sensitization. Keywords — Cowpea, impact, Propensity Score Matching (PSM), Purdue.

Development Outcomes of Fadama III among Fish Farmers in Nigeria: Evidence from Lagos State

This paper is focussed on the analysis of development outcomes of Fadama III programme among fish farmers in Nigeria with evidence from Lagos state. Random sampling technique was used to select 141 fish farmers from the Fadama III participants and non-participants from three agricultural divisions. Data were collected through structured questionnaire and analysed using descriptive statistics. While propensity score matching approach was employed to estimate the Average Treatment Effect on the Treated (ATT) using productivity level as an outcome, double-difference approach and Gini coefficient were used to estimate the project's impact on the income of the beneficiaries.The double difference estimator showed that the fish farmers who participated in Fadama III programme had 62.4% increase in their income. Education level, income level before the programme and land ownership were factors that positively influenced the probability of participating in Fadama III. The ATT estimates showed that the intervention/programme had a positive impact on the production level of participants to the tune of 2.15 tonnes per year. The Gini coefficient also showed that the fish farmers were better-off as their Gini-index reduced from 0.755 to 0.489 after participation in Fadama III. Fish farming was found to be generally profitable in the study area with a net profit of ₦7.36 million per annum while the Benefit Cost (B/C) ratio was 3.95.The income of fish farmers, after participation in Fadama III project, was positively and significantly influenced by the occupation and income of the farmers before participation in the project. The beneficiaries/participants surpassed the target of 40% increase in income set for the project. The beneficiaries were therefore better-off after participating in the programme. It is recommended that other farmers having no access to large income should be encouraged to participate and be a part of the ongoing Fadama III additional financing initiative.

Can a Mandate for Inclusion Change School Choices for Disadvantaged Parents? – Evidence from Urban India

Can inequalities in private school access be bridged through a government mandate? Enacted in 2009, India’s “Right to Education” mandated almost all private schools to admit at least 25 percent of children in their entry class from “economically weak and socially disadvantaged” groups. In this paper, we investigate the impact of the mandate on the nature of schools chosen by targeted households in one of the largest cities in India. Applying a double-difference estimation strategy, we compare the school choices of the targeted children and their elder siblings (not eligible for the mandate) between the households who received and those who failed to receive an allotment under the mandate. In addition, we compare schools that the households applied to but were not allotted under the mandate with the schools they are currently attending. The empirical results suggest that the mandate enables households to access schools that are more likely to be private, use English as a medium of instruction, located further away from home and charge a higher tuition fee compared to the schools that they might have accessed in the absence of the mandate. Given that these are all attributes typically associated with privilege, the mandate arguably has expanded the choices for these households. The effects are larger for households whose fallback option was government schools. But within the targeted populations, more advantaged households are more likely to apply and receive admissions via the mandate. Further, even though choice set of schools has expanded, the expanded set doesn’t include schools that charge relatively higher tuition (i.e. elite schools). Our findings speak to the transformative potential of such mandates in environments with poor track records of policy implementation and the challenges in strengthening them.

Impact of Fadama III programme on the income of tuber farmers in north central states of Nigeria: double difference estimator approach

This study examined the impact of Fadama III programme on the income of tuber crop farmers in north central States of Nigeria. The objectives of the study were to; describe the socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents, determine the impact of Fadama III programme on the income of participants and identify the challenges faced in root and tuber production in the study area. A multi-stage sampling procedure was used to select 934 farmers. Primary data were collected on socioeconomic variables; input – output level of participants and non-participants using structured questionnaires and interview schedules. Data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics, net farm income model and double difference estimator. The results shows that age, family size, farmers’ level of education, farm size, farmers’ farming experience and extension contacts were the socio-economic factors identified and described in the study area. The mean age was 22 years and 34 years respectively for participants and non-participants respectively. The result reveals that the mean farming experience was 23 years and 22 years respectively for participants and non-participants respectively. Similarly, the mean years of education of participants and non-participants were 8 years and 9 years respectively. The mean years of cooperative membership was 7 years and 6 years respectively. The mean farm size of participants and non-participants was 2.6 hectares and 1.50 hectares respectively. About 10% and 8% participants and non-participants of the Fadama III root and tuber crop farmers were singles, 61% and 68% of the participants and non-participants were married, 0% and 11% of participants and non-participants were divorced, and 29% and 11% were widowed. The mean household size of participants and non-participants was 10 persons each. The average number of contacts for the Fadama III root and tuber crop participants was approximately 2 with a standard deviation of 0.76, while that for the non-participants was approximately 1 time. The net farm income (NFI) for Fadama III programme root and tuber crop participants and non-participants before programme intervention were ₦268,195.04 /Ha and ₦287,768.09 /Ha respectively, while the net farm income after the programme intervention were ₦639,584.75 and ₦511,515.40/Ha for participants and non-participants respectively. The double difference figure of 298779.86, F-chow statistic shows that Fadama III root and tuber crop scheme had impact on the participants’ income. The problems encountered by the farmers in the study area are high cost of input, limited finances, bad roads, low produce prices, inadequate fixed inputs, and poor marketing practices, high cost of labour, poor storage facilities, insufficient water and shortage of fertilizer. The study recommends that farmers should be advised through the Agricultural Development Programme in the north central states on resource allocation and management in other to enhance increased net farm income.Keywords: Impact, Fadama III, Income, Tuber crops, Double Difference Estimator

Oil and Regional Development in Chad: Assessment of the Impact of the Doba Oil Project on Poverty in the Host Region

AbstractIn 1999, the Chad Government passed Law No. 001/PR/1999, establishing rules for allocating and managing the expected oil income from the Doba Oil project. The oil producing region's share amounts to 5 per cent of royalties, in addition to other benefits related to its status as an oil producing region, in order to mitigate negative effects from the oil project. This paper assesses the poverty profile in the Logone Oriental region, by combining a double difference estimator with propensity score matching methods. Data from two panels of the Survey on Consumption and the Informal Sector in Chad carried out in 2003 and 2011 show that monetary poverty increased in the oil producing region compared to the control regions. No evidence was found that non‐monetary poverty decreased in the oil producing region, as large investments in social infrastructure in the region might have suggested. In addition, it was found that household expenditure for temptation goods increased in this region compared with other regions. Finally, spillover effects were observed — the oil producing region's neighboring regions are more likely to experience poverty. These results cast doubt on the effectiveness of the law and of its replication for newly discovered oil fields.

Impact of improved crop production practices promoted in the Sudan Savannah Task Force (SSTF) of Katsina learning site

In Kano and Katsina States of Nigeria, some promoted improved crop production practices had been tested since 2008 in a series of farmer-managed field trials in four Innovation Platforms (two each) in these States representing the Sudan Savannah (SS) ecological zone of Nigeria. The objective of this study was to determine the impact of improved crop production practices of Sudan Savannah Task Force on the income and technical efficiency of the farming households in Katsina State. The study used primary data collected in 2011 cropping season with the aid of questionnaires. A total of 300 households were interviewed in the State. The tools used for analysis of the data were the double difference estimator and the stochastic production function. The result showed that the adopters of the introduced technologies enjoyed an increment of 744.35% in income. All the coefficients of the inputs in the production function were positive and statistically significant. The mean technical efficiency for the adopters and non-adopters were 0.87 and 0.65 respectively. The study concluded that the introduced technologies enhanced the income and efficiency in crop production of the adopters.

ASSESSING INCOME EFFECT OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES: A CASE STUDY OF COMMUNITY-BASED AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT PROJECT IN KWARA STATE (NIGERIA)

Globally, governments initiate various programmes to address income poverty among rural farmers. However, studies that focus on the impact of such programmes on farm- ers' income are either scanty or non-existent, especially in developing countries, including Nigeria. Therefore, this study examines the impact of Community-Based Agriculture and Rural Development Project (CBARDP) in Kwara State, Ni- geria. Data were obtained from 120 respondents comprising 60 benefi ciaries and 60 non-benefi ciaries of the programme. Descriptive statistics and double-diff erence estimator were used for the data analysis. The study showed that there was 46.3% increase in the income of the benefi ciaries while the non-benefi ciaries had just 7.4% increase. The study further re- vealed that there was a positive income diff erence of N151.27 in favour of the benefi ciaries of the project. However, the constraints to deriving a full impact of the programme by the benefi ciaries were: lack of commitment by the facilitators, lack of technical know-how, poor transportation system and inadequacy of the equipment provided. The study therefore recommends policies aimed at overhauling the activities of the facilitators, improving the technical skill of the benefi ciar- ies, improving the transportation system and providing the benefi ciaries with more equipment.

Evaluation of Fadama II Road Infrastructure among Rural Communities in Adamawa State, Nigeria

This study analyzed the role played by Fadama II on road development in Adamawa State, Nigeria. The data were obtained from 300 respondents who were randomly selected from Fadama II beneficiaries, non-beneficiaries within Fadama II communities and non-beneficiaries outside Fadama II communities. Based on propensity score matching (PSM) and double difference estimator (DD), the data were analyzed using frequencies, percentages and balancing test (t-test). The results showed that 30% of the roads were funded by Fadama II Project. Most of the roads were constructed and rehabilitated after the establishment of the project. Fadama II roads were found to be important for the beneficiaries’ activities. The analysis established that beneficiaries’ travel distance, travel time, waiting time and transport fares were reduced relative to non-beneficiaries. Road development has boosted marketing services for both farm and non-farm economic activities. Spill-over effect also manifests in the adjoining communities.

The Effect of Early Interventions in Health and Nutrition on On-Time School Enrollment: Evidence from theOportunidadesProgram in Rural Mexico

This article assesses whether early intervention to improve children's health and nutrition increases the probability of enrolling in primary school on time. Using experimental data from the Mexican conditional cash transfer (CCT) program, Oportunidades, a cross-sectional double-difference estimator on observations from two age cohorts of children is used to identify the impact of early intervention. The results indicate that early health and nutrition interventions can have a positive impact on the timing of enrollment and that caregiver characteristics affect the magnitude of the impact. Early intervention also appears to decrease days of school missed. Overall the results indicate that the full impact of CCT programs on education cannot be measured in the short run as benefits of early health and nutrition interventions may be also felt in the distant future.

Beyond 80%: Are There New Ways of Increasing Vaccination Coverage? Evaluation of CCT Programs in Mexico and Nicaragua

This study evaluates the impact of the Mexican conditional cash transfer (CCT) program, Oportunidades and the Nicaraguan program, Red de Proteccion Social, on vaccination coverage for Bacille Calmette-Guerin (vaccine against tuberculosis), Diphtheria-Pertussis-Tetanus Vaccine, Oral Polio Vaccine and Measles-Containing Vaccine in children less than three years of age, using a randomized treatment and control design at the community level. The intent-to-treat effect on vaccination coverage is assessed using a double-difference estimator. This study found that in Mexico and Nicaragua, CCTs significantly contribute to increased vaccination coverage among children, particularly among those not reached by traditional program strategies, such as children living further from health facilities and with mothers having less than primary school

Are there lasting impacts of aid to poor areas?

The paper re-visits the site of a large, World Bank-financed, rural development program in China, 10 years after it began and four years after disbursements ended. The program emphasized community participation in multi-sectoral interventions (including farming, animal husbandry, infrastructure and social services). Data were collected on 2000 households in project and non-project areas, spanning 10 years. A double-difference estimator of the program's impact (on top of pre-existing governmental programs) reveals sizeable short-term income gains that were mostly saved. Only small and statistically insignificant gains to mean consumption emerged in the longer-term — though in rough accord with the average gain to permanent income. The use of community-based beneficiary selection greatly reduced the overall impact, given that the educated poor were under-covered. The main results are robust to corrections for various sources of selection bias, including village targeting and interference due to spillover effects generated by the response of local governments to the external aid.

Driving Under the (Cellular) Influence: The Link between Cell Phone Use and Vehicle Crashes

The link between cell phone use while driving and crash risk has in recent years become an area of active research. The most notable of the over 125 studies has concluded that cell phones produce a four-fold increase in relative crash risk--comparable to that produced by illicit levels of alcohol. In response, policy makers in fourteen states have either partially or fully restricted driver cell phone use. We investigate the causal link between cellular usage and crash rates by exploiting a natural experiment induced by a popular feature of cell phone plans in recent years--the discontinuity in marginal pricing at 9 pm on weekdays when plans transition from peak to off-peak pricing. We first document a jump in call volume of about 20-30% at peak to off-peak switching times for two large samples of callers from 2000-2001 and 2005. Using a double difference estimator which uses the era prior to price switching as a control (as well as weekends as a second control), we find no evidence for a rise in crashes after 9 pm on weekdays from 2002-2005. The 95% CI of the estimates rules out any increase in all crashes larger than .9% and any increase larger than 2.4% for fatal crashes. These estimates are at odds with the crash risks implied by the existing research. We confirm our results with three additional empirical approaches--we compare trends in cell phone ownership and crashes across areas of contiguous economic activity over time, investigate whether differences in urban versus rural crash rates mirror identified gaps in urban-rural cellular ownership, and finally estimate the impact of legislation banning driver cell phone use on crash rates. None of the additional analyses produces evidence for a positive link between cellular use and vehicle crashes.

On random non-response in double sampling with difference estimator

The present paper considers the comparison of the double sampling difference estimator given in Singh and Singh (1979) for random non-response and the simple random sample mean with respect to these concepts. The empirical study shows that the relative efficiency and also the relative non-response robustness of the simple sample mean (with respect to the difference estimator) are decreasing functions of the rate of random non-response.