Dominant Product Research Articles

Change in Alloy Composition and Manufacturing Technology of Bronze Vessels Excavated from Archaeological Site

The purpose of this study is to analyze the components and observe the microstructure of 98 bronze vessels excavated from the Korean Peninsula, where such vessels were widely used, to identify the alloy composition and manufacturing process of bronze artifacts by period. In addition, we attempted to confirm the changing processes of bronze manufacturing technology by reviewing previous studies. The analysis results showed that the bronzeware of the Unified Silla period was mainly produced using a Cu-Sn binary alloy containing 20-26 wt% Sn, which was cast and slowly cooled. Also, most bronze vessels from the Goryeo dynasty were made of a Cu-Sn binary alloy, with an Sn content of 20–24 wt%. In the microstructure, a twinned α phase and β(M) phase were observed, indicating that the container was manufactured using the casting–hot forging–quenching process. Bronze vessels from the Joseon dynasty were made using a binary alloy of Cu-Sn and a ternary alloy of Cu-Sn-Pb. In order to confirm the changes in bronze manufacturing technology over time, we investigated the alloy composition and microstructure of a total of 295 vessels, including previous studies, and were able to confirm the dominant production technology for each period. During the Unified Silla period, the shape of the container was made by casting using a Cu-Sn binary alloy, and the process was completed through slow cooling or quenching. During the Goryeo Dynasty, vessels were made using a Cu-Sn binary alloy through a process of casting, hot forging, and quenching, or by casting a Cu-Sn-Pb ternary alloy into a vessel shape and then slowly cooling it. And in the Joseon Dynasty, the use of ternary alloys of Cu-Sn-Pb increased.

Pyrolysis kinetics and reaction mechanism of waste medical masks by sectional heating process

The COVID-19 epidemic has led to a significant upsurge in the accumulation of waste medical masks. This work focuses on the detailed examination of waste medical masks’ pyrolysis kinetic and reaction mechanism, employing a sectional heating process. The degradation properties were analyzed via thermal gravimetric analysis and pyrolysis reactor. The comprehensive kinetic process was studied using model-free and model-fitting methods, which determined the apparent activation energy and pre-exponential factor. The calculated average value for these parameters was 221.32 kJ/mol and 2.6 × 1014 min−1, respectively. The pyrolysis process was carried out at three distinct temperatures: 380, 470, and 490 ℃, corresponding to the initial peak degradation rate and final degradation temperatures determined by TGA results. The total yield of oil, gas and tar was 88.6 %, 11.3 % and 0.1 %, respectively. The identification and quantification of pyrolysis products were achieved through GC–MS and FTIR. It was observed that higher pyrolysis temperature facilitated the generation of alkanes and hydrocarbons with lower carbon chain lengths in oil products and propylene monomers in gas products. The dominant pyrolysis products in oil under 380 ℃, 470 ℃ and 490 ℃ were C20, C20 and C12 with the yield of 36.17 %, 48.96 % and 43.35 %, respectively. And the corresponding dominant products in gas all were propylene with the yield of 34.74 %, 53.02 % and 54.55 %, respectively. Furthermore, a reaction mechanism was postulated to elucidate the pyrolysis process under varying temperature conditions.

Supercritical water co-gasification of waste R134a and plastics to produce valuable chemicals and fuels: ReaxFF reactive molecular dynamic simulation

Supercritical water gasification of waste hydrofluorocarbon refrigerants was an effective treatment technology, but there is a problem of high yield of fluorine-containing products with complex types. Plastic has the potential to provide sufficient H atoms as hydrogen donor to facilitate defluorination of fluorine-containing products. In this study, ReaxFF reactive molecular dynamic simulation and density functional theory calculation were used to investigate the supercritical water co-gasification (SCWCG) mechanism of R134a and low-density polyethylene (LDPE). The results showed that the decomposition of LDPE was the initial reaction of SCWCG, the generated radicals promoted the dissociation of R134a and H2O. The dominant SCWCG products were valuable hydrocarbons, H2, CO and HF. The present of LDPE promoted the defluorination reaction of fluorine-containing products from the dissociation of R134a, reduced the yield of fluorine-containing products, and greatly promoted the yields of H2, HF, CO and hydrocarbon products. 99% of F atoms in R134a can be converted to HF, which indicated that plastics participating in supercritical water gasification of R134a has excellent defluorination effect. This study provided an efficient and potential route to conduct waste HFC refrigerants into valuable chemicals and fuels.

Precision prediction of a democratic up-family philic KSVZ axion model at the LHC

In this work, we study the SU(2)L singlet complex scalar extended KSVZ model that, in addition to providing a natural solution to the strong-CP problem, furnishes two components of dark matter that satisfy observer relic density without fine-tuning the model’s parameters. A colored vector-like quark (VLQ) is naturally present in the KSVZ axion model, providing a rich dark matter and collider phenomenology. In this extended model, scalar dark matter interacts with the Standard Model up-type quarks (up, charm, top) through VLQ. We explore the possibility of democratic Yukawa interaction of the VLQ with all up-type quarks and scalar dark matter candidate. We also employ next-to-leading order NLO-QCD correction on dominant production channels for VLQ pair production to study a unique search at the LHC, generating a pair of boosted tops with sizeable missing transverse momentum. Such corrections are significant and reduce factorization and renormalization scale uncertainties substantially. The NLO fixed order results are matched with the Pythia8 parton shower. After being pair-produced, each VLQ decays into a dark matter and a top quark. We conducted a multivariate analysis using jet substructure variables of boosted top fatjets with a significant missing transverse momentum signal. This analysis allows us to explore a substantial parameter space of this model at the 14 TeV LHC.

Intermediate-regulated dynamic restructuring at Ag-Cu biphasic interface enables selective CO2 electroreduction to C2+ fuels

A bimetallic heterostructure has been shown effective to enhance the multi-carbon (C2+) product selectivity in CO2 electroreduction. Clarifying the interfacial structure under electrolysis and its decisive role in the pathway selection are crucial, yet challenging. Here, we conceive a well-defined Ag-Cu biphasic heterostructure to understand the interfacial structure-steered product selectivity: The Cu-rich interface prefers ethylene, while the dominant product switch to alcohols with an increasing Ag fraction, and finally to CO as Ag occupying the main surface. We unravel a *CO intermediate-regulated interfacial restructuring, and observe abundant of Cu atoms migrating onto the neighboring Ag surface under a locally high *CO concentration. The evolving structure alters the oxyphilic characteristic at the interface, which profoundly determines the hydrogenation energetics of CO2 and ultimately, the dominant C2+ product. This work explicitly links the evolving interfacial structure with distinct C2+ pathway, formulating design guidelines for bimetallic electrocatalysts with selectively enhanced C2+ yields.

Challenges and opportunities to a sustainable bioenergy utilization in climate mitigation: a global perspective

Bioenergy is perceived to play a vital role in climate mitigation, transition to renewable energy consumption, energy security, and local and rural socio-economic development. However, exploiting renewable bioenergy resources may need to be more sustainable in the current predominant paradigm. In this study, we raise two broad research questions: (1) what are the significant challenges to the current global bioenergy production and consumption system, and (2) what are the opportunities for a sustainable and circular bioenergy system? We qualitatively analyzed how the current bioenergy production and consumption system results in unintended negative consequences. Taking the example of biofuels, this research exemplifies some critical systemic flaws in how bioenergy is currently utilized in the transportation sector. We do this by broadening the system boundaries to identify the social, economic, and environmental consequences often distant in time and space. We conducted semi-structured interviews, workshops, and literature studies to gather data on the significant bioenergy production and consumption drivers, socio-economic factors, and ecological impacts. The causal loop diagram technique illustrates this broader system's systemic cause-effect and feedback relationships. In the current system of bioenergy production and consumption, negative socio-economic and ecological consequences limit the potential of exploiting bioenergy for climate mitigation. Firstly, bioenergy is neither carbon neutral nor renewable from a broader systems perspective, given that biomass cultivation, feedstock refining, and processing are closely coupled with natural resource use (e.g., water, energy, chemicals, and fertilizers) and other nutrient cycles (e.g., nitrogen, and phosphorus). Secondly, large-scale bioenergy developments negatively impact food security, land use change, ecosystem services, and biodiversity in certain regions. Thirdly, the current globalized bioenergy economy is fundamentally unsustainable due to the displacement of bioenergy production's negative social and ecological impacts from consumer to producer regions. We identify and discuss the critical system interventions to be placed throughout the system as significant leverages for managing the unintended negative consequences of the present dominant bioenergy production and consumption regimes.

Optimizing water use efficiency in maize (Zea mays L.) production through deficit irrigation in Gazhen-Fuafuat Kebele, Northwest Ethiopia

Ethiopia's dominant maize production relies on rain, but growing water scarcity challenges dry season irrigation efforts. This necessitates smarter irrigation techniques to maximize water use efficiency. This study optimizes water use efficiency in maize production through deficit irrigation in Gazhen-Fuafuat kebele, Fogera woreda, Ethiopia. A field experiment was conducted during the 2019/20 dry season, comparing four irrigation levels: 55%, 70%, 85%, and 100% of crop water requirements (ETc). Findings revealed that while higher irrigation levels generally enhanced plant growth and grain yield, irrigation water use efficiency was optimized at 70% ETc. Deficit irrigation at 55% ETc proved to be suboptimal, leading to significant reductions in crop growth and grain production. Conversely, applying 70% ETc resulted in a 30% reduction in irrigation water use without compromising yield. Compared to full irrigation, deficit irrigation at 85% ETc, 70% ETc, and 55% ETc resulted in yield reductions of 8%, 13.5%, and 33.1%, respectively. However, these reductions were accompanied by water savings of 15%, 30%, and 45%, respectively, leading to corresponding increases in water use efficiency of 8%, 23.4%, and 21.9%. These results suggest that deficit irrigation practices can be effectively employed to improve water use efficiency in maize production, especially in the study area facing water scarcity. This study provides valuable insights into the potential of deficit irrigation to improve maize production in Ethiopia while conserving water resources. Therefore, by implementing deficit irrigation strategies and supporting farmers with appropriate training and resources, Ethiopia can enhance its agricultural productivity and ensure food security in the face of increasing water scarcity.

Overturning CO2 Hydrogenation Selectivity from CH4 to CO by Strong Ru-FeOx Interaction Arising from a Multilayer Epitaxial Structure.

The catalytic conversion of CO2 to CO through hydrogenation has emerged as a promising strategy for CO2 utilization, given that CO serves as a valuable C1 platform compound for synthesizing liquid fuels and chemicals. However, the predominant formation of CH4 via deep hydrogenation over Ru-based catalysts poses challenges in achieving selective CO production. High reaction temperatures often lead to catalyst deactivation and changes in selectivity due to dynamic metal evolution or agglomeration, even with a classic strong metal-support interaction. Herein, we have developed a FeOx/Ru/Rutile multilayer epitaxial structure by depositing a FeOx layer onto the epitaxially grown RuO2 nanolayers on the surface of rutile nanoparticles. This multilayer epitaxial structure transformed into a structure in which Ru nanoparticles were decorated with FeOx layers with ultrastable strong metal-support interaction (SMSI). Subsequently, the FeOx decoration on Ru nanoparticles effectively shifted the dominant product from CH4 to 95% CO during CO2 hydrogenation. Remarkably, this catalyst exhibits exceptional stability and can be operated stably at 550 °C for a long time without apparent deactivation. Compared with the dynamic changes observed in supported Ru nanoparticles, the interaction between Ru and FeOx maintains their electronic states at different reaction temperatures. Furthermore, this Ru-FeOx interaction inhibits H2 activation capability, CO adsorption, and subsequent hydrogenation of CO. The transformation strategy employed here, which utilizes initial multilayer epitaxial structures, can be applied to construct SMSI to enhance metal catalysts' catalytic performance.

Proposed Importance of HOCO Chemistry: Inefficient Formation of CO2 from CO and OH Reactions on Ice Dust

With the advent of JWST ice observations, dedicated studies on the formation reactions of detected molecules are becoming increasingly important. One of the most interesting molecules in interstellar ice is CO2. Despite its simplicity, the main formation reaction considered, CO + OH → CO2 + H through the energetic HOCO* intermediate on ice dust, is subject to uncertainty because it directly competes with the stabilization of HOCO as a final product, which is formed through energy dissipation of HOCO* to the water ice. When energy dissipation to the surface is effective during the reaction, HOCO can be a dominant product. In this study, we experimentally demonstrate that the major product of the reaction is indeed not CO2, but rather the highly reactive radical HOCO. The HOCO radical can later evolve into CO2 through H-abstraction reactions, but these reactions compete with additional reactions, leading to the formation of carboxylic acids (R-COOH). Our results highlight the importance of HOCO chemistry and encourage further exploration of the chemistry of this radical.

Automated potential energy surface development and quasi-classical dynamics for the F- + SiH3I system.

We report a potential energy surface (PES) development for the F- + SiH3I system to study its gas-phase reactions through quasi-classical dynamics simulations. The PES is represented by a full-dimensional permutationally invariant polynomial fitted to composite coupled cluster energy points obtained at the ManyHF-[CCSD-F12b + BCCD(T) - BCCD]/aug-cc-pVTZ(-PP) level of theory. The development was automated by Robosurfer, which samples the configurational space, manages abinitio calculations, and iteratively extends the fitting set. When selecting the abinitio method, we address two types of electronic structure calculation issues: first, the gold standard CCSD(T)-F12b is prone to occasional breakdown due to the perturbative (T) contribution, whereas CCSD-F12b + BCCD(T) - BCCD, with the Brueckner (T) term, is more robust; second, the underlying Hartree-Fock calculation may not always converge to the global minimum, resulting in highly erroneous energies. To mitigate this, we employed ManyHF, configuring the Hartree-Fock calculations with multiple initial guess orbitals and selecting the solution with the lowest energy. According to the simulations, the title system exhibits exceptionally high and diverse reactivity. We observe two dominant product formations: SN2 and proton abstraction. Moreover, SiH2F- + HI, SiHFI- + H2, SiH2FI + H-, SiH2 + FHI-, SiH2 + HF + I-, and SiHF + H2 + I- formations are found at lower probabilities. We differentiated inversion and retention for SN2, both being significant throughout the entire collision energy range. Opacity- and excitation functions are reported, and the details of the atomistic dynamics are visually examined via trajectory animations.

Methanol Formation in Hyperthermal Oxygen Collisions with Methane Clathrate Ice.

The presence of small organic molecules at airless icy bodies may be significant for prebiotic chemistry, yet uncertainties remain about their origin. Here, we consider the role of hyperthermal reactive ions in modifying the organic inventory of ice. We employ molecular dynamics using the ReaxFF formalism to simulate bombardment of carbon-bearing ice by hyperthermal water group molecules (HxO, x = 0-2) with kinetic energy between 2 and 58 eV. Methanol is the dominant closed-shell organic product for a CH4 clathrate irradiated at low dose by atomic oxygen. It is produced at yields as high as 10%, primarily by a novel hot-atom reaction mechanism, while radiolysis makes a secondary contribution. At high irradiation doses (≳1.4 × 1015 cm-2), the composition is driven toward greater carbon oxidation states with formaldehyde being favored over methanol production. Other water group impactors are less efficient at inducing chemistry in the ice, and alternate clathrate guest species (CO, CO2) are very robust against hydrogenation.

Electrodeposition of dense spherical Ni3P on nickel foam cathode enhance nitrate electrochemical reduction via promoting nitrate adsorption

Electrochemical nitrate reduction to nitrogen gas is considered as an alternative strategy to address water pollution problem, but the high cost and poor product selectivity of electrode limit its application. Here, Ni3P loaded nickel foam was fabricated via one-step eletrodeposition as cathode for electrochemical nitrate reduction. Due to the improvement of electron transfer rate and electrochemically active surface area, current efficiency and reaction rate constant enhanced 20.4-flod and 40-fold, respectively. Batch experiments revealed the remarkable nitrate reduction performance (∼97.53 %) after the optimization of potential, initial NO3- concentration and pH. Presence of chlorine induced electrochlorination will tune N2 (selectivity up to ∼100 %) to become the dominant products. Mechanism study suggested that the atomic H*-mediated indirect reduction, meanwhile properties of Ni3P to strengthen NO3- adsorption and prevent desorption of NO and NO2 are responsible for the enhancement of nitrate reduction. This work is meaningful for water environment protection and energy sustainable development.

Electrolyte Composition-Dependent Product Selectivity in CO2 Reduction with a Porphyrinic Metal-Organic Framework Catalyst.

A copper porphyrin-derived metal-organic framework electrocatalyst, FICN-8, was synthesized and its catalytic activity for CO2 reduction reaction (CO2RR) was investigated. FICN-8 selectively catalyzed electrochemical reduction of CO2 to CO in anhydrous acetonitrile electrolyte. However, formic acid became the dominant CO2RR product with the addition of a proton source to the system. Mechanistic studies revealed the change of major reduction pathway upon proton source addition, while catalyst-bound hydride (*H) species was proposed as the key intermediate for formic acid production. This work highlights the importance of electrolyte composition on CO2RR product selectivity.

Dominant Production of Dissolved Inorganic Carbon by Organic Matter Degradation in a Coastal Lagoon: Evidence from Carbon Isotopes

Dominant Production of Dissolved Inorganic Carbon by Organic Matter Degradation in a Coastal Lagoon: Evidence from Carbon Isotopes

Probing protoneutron stars with gamma-ray axionscopes

Axion-like particles (ALPs) coupled to nucleons can be efficiently produced in the interior of protoneutron stars (PNS) during supernova (SN) explosions. If these ALPs are also coupled to photons they can convert into gamma rays in the Galactic magnetic field. This SN-induced gamma-ray burst can be observable by gamma-ray telescopes like Fermi-LAT if the SN is in the field of view of the detector. We show that the observable gamma-ray spectrum is sensitive to the production processes in the SN core. In particular, if the nucleon-nucleon bremsstrahlung is the dominant axion production channel, one expects a thermal spectrum with average energy E a ≃ 50 MeV. In this case the gamma-ray spectrum observation allows for the reconstruction of the PNS temperature. In case of a sizable pion abundance in the SN core, one expects a second spectral component peaked at E a ≃ 200 MeV due to axion pionic processes. We demonstrate that, through a dedicated LAT analysis, we can detect the presence of this pionic contribution, showing that the detection of the spectral shape of the gamma-ray signal represents a unique probe of the pion abundance in the PNS.

Molecular Dynamic Simulation of Primary Damage with Electronic Stopping in Indium Phosphide.

Indium phosphide (InP) is an excellent material used in space electronic devices due to its direct band gap, high electron mobility, and high radiation resistance. Displacement damage in InP, such as vacancies, interstitials, and clusters, induced by cosmic particles can lead to the serious degradation of InP devices. In this work, the analytical bond order potential of InP is modified with the short-range repulsive potential, and the hybrid potential is verified for its reliability to simulate the atomic cascade collisions. By using molecular dynamics simulations with the modified potential, the primary damage defects evolution of InP caused by 1-10 keV primary knock-on atoms (PKAs) are studied. The effects of electronic energy loss are also considered in our research. The results show that the addition of electronic stopping loss reduces the number of point defects and weakens the damage regions. The reduction rates of point defects caused by electronic energy loss at the stable state are 32.2% and 27.4% for 10 keV In-PKA and P-PKA, respectively. In addition, the effects of electronic energy loss can lead to an extreme decline in the number of medium clusters, cause large clusters to vanish, and make the small clusters dominant damage products in InP. These findings are helpful to explain the radiation-induced damage mechanism of InP and expand the application of InP devices.

Production line location strategy for foreign manufacturer when selling in a market lag behind in manufacturing

It is a prevalent practice for foreign manufacturers to market their products in regions with lower manufacturing capabilities. However, the manufacturer’s choice of production line location strategy is significantly influenced by tariffs and negative brand effects caused by localized production. In this paper, we build a game-theoretical model considering a supply chain composed of a foreign manufacturer and a local retailer. The foreign manufacturer initially produces both high-end and low-end products at the oversea (with higher manufacturing capabilities), selling them in the local market through a local retailer. We explore various production line location strategies for the foreign manufacturer, including both location at the oversea, both location at the local market (with lower manufacturing capabilities), and separate location, and analyze the impacts of tariffs and negative brand effects. By comparing equilibrium results in different strategies, we discover that as tariffs rise, both location at the oversea may be the best choice for the foreign manufacturer instead of separate location strategy, which challenges the prevalent practice where many foreign manufacturers opt to produce high-end products overseas to uphold brand influence while localizing low-end products to minimize tariff costs. Overall, there is no singularly dominant production line location strategy for the foreign manufacturer, and each strategy holds the potential to yield the highest overall supply chain profit. In addition, as tariffs rise, customer surplus will increase under separate location, and only the separate location strategy or both location at the local market strategy is likely to yield the highest consumer surplus.

The threat of vaping in youths.

Electronic cigarettes are driving a new epidemic of nicotine dependence among youths and are now the dominant tobacco product used by adolescents in the United States and other countries. Candy and fruit flavorings have driven their use, and many products contain higher nicotine concentrations, which contributed to their addictive potential. Numerous epidemiologic studies have described increased rates of respiratory symptoms in adolescent electronic cigarette users, and in vitro and in vivo studies showed that electronic cigarette vapors exert extensive biological effects on human airways, different from tobacco smoke, leading to epithelial cell dysregulation, inflammation, mucus hypersecretion, and apoptosis. Severe acute lung injury has been reported in adolescents and young adults, particularly in those using tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)-containing products, underscoring the threats of electronic cigarettes to lung health.

Bio-based nylon intermediates from γ-valerolactone: Catalyst modifications for an enhanced selectivity to methyl 4-pentenoate

Ring-opening transesterification of bio-based γ-valerolactone (GVL) to produce a mixture of methyl pentenoate isomers (MPs) such as methyl 4-pentenoate (M4P), methyl 3-pentenoate (M3P) and methyl 2-pentenoate (M2P) has been carried out using modified Zr-containing catalysts in a gas phase continuous process. As the three MP isomers are potential nylon intermediates, this approach is sustainable from a green chemistry point of view to synthesize bio-based polymers. The reaction was carried out in a fixed bed catalytic reactor at ambient pressure and in the temperature range from 255 to 335°C. In the present study, SiO2 supported zirconia catalysts were prepared by wet impregnation with varying Zr loadings in the range from 5 to 30 wt%. The catalysts were characterized by various techniques. The surface areas were determined by N2 adsorption, acid-base properties by NH3-TPD and CO2-TPD techniques. In addition, the distinction of Lewis and Brønsted sites were also estimated by Py-FTIR. Among all catalysts, 25 % Zr/SiO2 exhibited the best performance. The influence of various key reaction parameters on the activity/selectivity was explored and suitable reaction conditions were optimized. The conversion of GVL and product distribution was found to be strongly dependent on the reaction temperature and Zr content of the catalysts. The sum selectivity of all the three MP isomers varied in the range from 97 % to 99 %, of which M4P was always the dominant product. At low reaction temperature (255°C), M4P was the major product while M2P was a minor product. However, with increase in temperature, the selectivity of M2P and M3P increased at the expense of M4P due to isomerisation of the CC double bond. In addition, the effect of support on the best Zr loading was also explored and it was found that the SiO2 support exhibited superior performance compared to others. In the direction of enhancing the selectivity of M4P, Cr-doping was also done onto 25Zr/SiO2, the best catalyst of this study. Such incorporation of chromium significantly enhanced the selectivity of M4P above 80 % at acceptably high conversion of GVL.

Selective methanol production via CO2 reduction on Cu2O revealed by micro-kinetic study combined with constant potential model

High efficiency electrocatalysis of greenhouse gas CO2 to liquid fuel methanol attracts great attentions that allows energy transformation from renewable electric energy to storable chemical energy. Catalytically converting CO2 to methanol using green hydrogen is a promising pathway to achieve carbon neutrality. In this work, the catalytic activity and product selectivity of the electrochemical CO2 reduction reaction on Cu2O were studied using a micro-kinetic model based on Marcus charge transfer theory. The constant potential model under the grand-canonical ensemble enables the accurate description of binding energies and ground-state charge transfer upon surface adsorption as a function of electrode potential. Firstly, the potential-dependent activation energies and rate constants of all possible elementary reactions involved in CO2 reduction are calculated. Then, the surface coverage and its derivative can be obtained in a steady-state approximation. Finally, the total reaction rate and partial reaction rate can be deduced, allowing for direct comparison with catalytic activity (current density) and product selectivity (Faradaic efficiency). It is found that CH3OH is the dominant product on the Cu2O(111) surface, while CO is the main product on the Cu2O(110) surface. Based on the derived total and partial reaction rates under the steady-state approximation, it is demonstrated that Cu2O(111) exhibits the highest electrocatalytic activity and methanol selectivity at U = −0.6 V vs. SHE. This research presents a methodology for predicting apparent electrocatalytic performance from microscopic reaction energy calculations, which can be applied to other important electrocatalytic reaction mechanisms and performance predictions.