Domestic Water Supply Research Articles

Implementation of Contactless Liquid Level Sensing

Usually, the arises to measure liquid levels in containers, in large industries; where large volumes of liquids are stored, in small scale industries and residential buildings in developing countries that sees many households implementing their own domestic water supply system. Measurements by humans may be influenced by sentiments, fatigues, lack of concentration, and so on, which has led to economic losses due lost liquid and wasted electric power. Therefore, researches have been directed toward development of automatic liquid level sensing technologies. This paper will assist instrumentation researchers to know the state of the art in level sensing technology, and practitioners in selecting the right kind of level sensors for a particular application.

In Situ Measurements of Domestic Water Quality and Health Risks by Elevated Concentration of Heavy Metals and Metalloids Using Monte Carlo and MLGI Methods.

The domestic water (DW) quality of an island province in the Philippines that experienced two major mining disasters in the 1990s was assessed and evaluated in 2021 utilizing the heavy metals pollution index (MPI), Nemerow’s pollution index (NPI), and the total carcinogenic risk (TCR) index. The island province sources its DW supply from groundwater (GW), surface water (SW), tap water (TP), and water refilling stations (WRS). This DW supply is used for drinking and cooking by the population. In situ analyses were carried out using an Olympus Vanta X-ray fluorescence spectrometer (XRF) and Accusensing Metals Analysis System (MAS) G1 and the target heavy metals and metalloids (HMM) were arsenic (As), barium (Ba), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), lead (Pb), manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni), and zinc (Zn). The carcinogenic risk was evaluated using the Monte Carlo (MC) method while a machine learning geostatistical interpolation (MLGI) technique was employed to create spatial maps of the metal concentrations and health risk indices. The MPI values calculated at all sampling locations for all water samples indicated a high pollution. Additionally, the NPI values computed at all sampling locations for all DW samples were categorized as “highly polluted”. The results showed that the health quotient indices (HQI) for As and Pb were significantly greater than 1 in all water sources, indicating a probable significant health risk (HR) to the population of the island province. Additionally, As exhibited the highest carcinogenic risk (CR), which was observed in TW samples. This accounted for 89.7% of the total CR observed in TW. Furthermore, all sampling locations exceeded the recommended maximum threshold level of 1.0 × 10−4 by the USEPA. Spatial distribution maps of the contaminant concentrations and health risks provide valuable information to households and guide local government units as well as regional and national agencies in developing strategic interventions to improve DW quality in the island province.

Influence of cavitation processes on river water purification of mountain streams

Problems: The article considers the study of the influence of cavitation phenomena in hydrodynamically active areas of mountain rivers on the processes of natural self-purification of water. The paper considers the experimental results of determining the change in seasonal indicators of the hydrochemical composition of surface waters in the Stryi river basin.
 Objective: to determine the impact of hydrodynamically active areas (HAA) of mountain rivers on the processes of natural self-purification and to develop methods of laboratory modeling of these areas to determine the hydrochemical parameters of river waters.
 Methods of implementation: Research of ecological and hydrochemical factors of chemical composition of natural waters of the Stryi river basin combines basin and landscape-geochemical approaches, which allows to integrate various natural and anthropogenic influences, to identify the most important parameters for their detailed analysis. The combination of these approaches made it possible to improve the method of ecological analysis of the area of ​​the Stryi river basin, which allows to spatially differentiate and hydrochemically integrate the factors of formation of the chemical composition of natural waters.
 Results: It is stated that microbiological safety of water is a special problem, because even water from underground sources may contain single cells of pathogenic microorganisms, but the main threat is water re-contaminated with microbes in case of leaks in the water supply network.
 Conclusions: Analysis of the results of studies of the impact of self-cleaning processes in the river Stryi on the quality of water intake in Stryi showed that there are currently no negative effects of river waters of the river Stryi on groundwater deposits. The quality of river water is satisfactory for its use in domestic and drinking water supply and for recreational purposes.

Hygienic assessment of polyurethane coatings in the practice of drinking water supply

Introduction. For many years, two-component polyurethane coatings have been used as suitable systems for the protection and reconstruction of pipes in the practice of domestic drinking water supply. However, polyurethane can be a source of pollutants entering drinking water. Special attention in the hygienic assessment is paid to the main components of plastic, the released solvents and film-forming agents used in the formulation of the material. However, the definition of only priority components (taking into account Uniform sanitary requirements) does not provide complete information about the chemical stability of polymer materials during the hygienic assessment. Materials and methods. Eight different two-component polyurethane coatings of various manufacturers and manufacturers offered for use in drinking water supply are investigated in the work. The evaluation of these samples was carried out taking into account Uniform requirements (2010). Indicators that are not mandatory for the evaluation of polymer materials used in drinking water supply were also investigated. Results. Conducting a hygienic assessment of two-component polyurethane coatings shows fundamentally different chemicals to migrate into the model environment even from materials with the same type of components. When analyzing water extracts, from 9 to 40 organic compounds were identified at different temperatures. Most of them do not have the maximum permissible levels of their content in drinking water and there are no fully conducted toxicological studies of these chemicals to assess their safety for humans. There also were found three samples, from which inorganic components of cadmium and nickel migrated into distilled water above their maximum permissible values. Limitations. This study was conducted on the example of polyurethane coatings, as a particular example of the use of polymer materials in drinking water supply. It is necessary to conduct similar studies on other groups of polymers. Conclusion. At the moment, there are certain contradictions in the methodology and approaches to assessing the migration of chemicals from polymer coatings to drinking water. Therefore, their refinement and standardization is relevant, taking into account the increasing share of the use of polymer materials in human life.

An inverter-driven heat pump with a multi-tubular tube-in-tube heat exchanger for domestic hot water supply

An inverter-driven heat pump prototype to supply domestic hot water (DHW) was built, within which a multi-tubular tube-in-tube counter-flow heat exchanger as condenser was installed including a desuperheater section and a condenser section. The heating coefficient of performance (COP) is reduced approximately 10% if the feed water temperature increases from 9 °C to 24 °C. When the inlet temperature of primary brine is 24 °C, the compressor frequency does not show any effect on the heating COP. While when the inlet temperatures of primary fluid are 5, 10, and 17 °C, the COP increases with the rise of the compressor frequency at first, but it stays almost constant when the compressor frequency is within 40–55 Hz. It is considered that the effects of opposite dependencies of heat transfer and the pressure drop in the condenser onto COP tend to cancel each other out to obtain a constant heating COP. When the produced hot water is 65 °C, the heating COP of our developed heat pump for DHW is the largest among those of other three different heat pumps.

Perception of the Users Regarding the Water Delivery for Domestic Purposes in Jammu City: A Human Rights Based Approach

The situation of domestic water supply is grim in Jammu City. The crisis is attributed to the city's high functionality and massive population burden. This has led to several unallocated settlements expanding beyond the command of utility providers. Further, the constantly growing needs of the capital city has contributed to the demand-supply imbalance contributing to unevenness in the availability of water utility services. The discrepancy in the interests of stakeholders have threatened the water security and adds vulnerability through deprivation of water as a basic human right in the city. The study discusses the perception of the Users regarding water delivery for domestic purposes in Jammu City with respect to six factors of HRBA namely-availability and accessibility, acceptability, affordability, equity, citizen's participation and accountability dimensions. The implications of poor service delivery for domestic needs have added to the social and economic challenges through the increased intensity of water shortage and high economic burden of water procurement. The statistical validation of this association highlights the fundamental flaws prevailing in the utility delivery mechanism, adding to the misery of residents in Jammu city. The failure is attributed to the unfocused investments and the inappropriate infrastructure in coherence with the needs of the community. The perspective of Human Rights based approach is aimed at ensuring an unwavering commitment from the policymakers to effectively allocate and manage water resources and deliver water and sanitation services under good governance. Further, the community responses with respect to HRBA principles help in picturing the civic familiarity of the problems of domestic water delivery due to institutional failure and the problems associated with it. The shortfalls can prescribe suggestions for the policymakers that coincide with the principles of HRBA in achieving citizen's oriented smooth and efficient delivery of water resources.

Evaluation of the Groundwater and Irrigation Quality in the Zhuoshui River Alluvial Fan between Wet and Dry Seasons

The Zhuoshui River alluvial fan is one of the most important groundwater and agricultural areas in Taiwan. Abundant groundwater resources are the main source of domestic water supply and irrigation water. However, groundwater recharge and groundwater quality have been greatly affected under extreme climate and hydrological conditions. Hence, the quality of groundwater has been a topic of concern to the public. In this study, groundwater level and groundwater quality data of the Zhuoshui River alluvial fan from 2008 to 2020 were used to divide the wet and dry season groups according to the sampling dates. An independent samples t-test was used to evaluate the differences in the mean groundwater level and the mean concentration between the wet and dry seasons. The test results show that there was no statistically significant difference in the mean groundwater level between the wet and dry seasons. This may result from the time lag effects of groundwater recharge. Except for groundwater temperature, bicarbonate, and total organic carbon (TOC), there were no significant differences among the mean concentrations of other groundwater quality parameters in Aquifer 1 and Aquifer 2 between the wet and dry seasons. In terms of the alluvial fan location, although the soil texture, land utilization, cropping systems, and hydrogeology of the proximal, mid-, and distal fan may affect groundwater quality variations, it seems that only Aquifer 1 is affected by surface water infiltration, resulting in significant differences in mean groundwater temperature, mean concentrations of major ions, and nitrate between the wet and dry seasons, whereas Aquifer 2 is less affected. At the same time, owing to the geological conditions and intensive cultivation in the Zhuoshui River alluvial fan, nitrate and arsenic could represent a high risk to the public’s health if groundwater is used as a source for domestic water supply or irrigation water in the distal fan area, whether in the wet season or dry season. Meanwhile, due to global climate change and uneven droughts and floods, the hydrological conditions of the so-called “wet season” and “dry season” are obviously different from those in the past. Compared with precipitation, groundwater level may be a better indicator for understanding variations in groundwater quality.

Heavy metal concentrations levels in groundwater and wastewater sources in parts of Trans-Amadi, Port Harcourt, Nigeria

This research assesses the concentration levels of heavy metals in parts of Trans-Amadi Layout, Port Harcourt, Nigeria. Standard sampling and analytical method were employed in the study. Geochemically significant concentrations of lead (Pb2+) and iron (Fe²+ and Fe³+) prevail in about 70% of the functioning domestic water supply wells in Trans Amadi, Port Harcourt, while traces of Mercury and Arsenic (with relatively high concentration of lead and Iron) characterize industrial effluent liquid wastes (usually discharged untreated into the environment). The major industries in Trans Amadi industrial layout area of Port Harcourt ( in addition to breweries and mineral water industries) produce wide range of pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and textiles, with elevated potential to release chemical waste such as oxides of mercury, iron and titanium; silicates of magnesium and aluminum, phosphates; and sulphates (such as FeSO4 used as coagulates in water treatment) into the environment of common sight along the streets and waste sites are metallic cans from food items, old and worn out rubber, leather and machine parts, variable sizes of broken metallic, plastic and asbestos pipes and enamel wares, as well as a wide range of used textile materials. Enrichment of heavy metallic ions in urban waters in non-mineralized areas is controlled by chemical activities on these wastes. Liquid wastes from industrial and municipal sources are commonly discharged (untreated) along road sides and streets where they constitute shallow ponds, or flow at a very slow rate (depending on flow volume and slope) to a distant termination point (mostly the river and stream flow channels). The liquid wastes, with suspended gaseous wastes from automobiles and industrial and domestic machine engines, are linked to the groundwater zone through recharge by meteoric waters. This accounts for the worrisome concentration of lead (Pb) in the groundwater in the area, without geologically-proven mineralization of lead and base metals.

Prospective directions for innovative development strategies in pharmacy in the military health system of the Russian Federation

Strengthening the readiness of the medical service system of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation to fulfill given tasks is possible only with innovative development, which constitutes the scientific and methodological basis for the modernization of military healthcare. In this connection, researchers at the pharmacy department of the Kirov Military medical Academy considered the development of kits and equipment, medical equipment, mobile and special medical equipment, and pharmaceutical technologies as the absolute priority of their scientific development. The requirements for the equipment of different units and military medical organizations both at present conditions and in future wars include high level of mobility, shortened deployment (curtailment) terms, autonomy, increased operational efficiency of units, etc. The realization of these requirements is possible if certain issues are solved, primarily aimed at the digitalization of medical supply system of military forces, improvement of basic equipment, and entering new developments in the field of pharmaceutical technology into the medical service of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation. The article presents the perspective directions of the innovative development of the medical supply system of the Armed Forces, which is the most important element of military healthcare. Results of the activity such as creation and acceptance for the supply of mobile units for production, accumulation (storage), delivery, distribution of medical gaseous oxygen, registration of medicinal products (medical oxygen, 93%), and acceptance of the corresponding pharmacopoeial article are already represented. Still at the development stage, there are innovative sets of service equipment of airborne troops, sterilization, and distillation unit, allowing the use of water from natural surface sources of domestic and drinking water supply, etc.

Unravelling hidden factors explaining competition for and overuse of groundwater in Azraq, Jordan: digging deeper into a network of action situations

In Azraq in Eastern Jordan, farmers, domestic users, and a wetland ecosystem compete for and overexploit limited groundwater resources. Current studies explain parts of the problem, but do not take a comprehensive social–ecological systems perspective and tend to miss underlying hidden factors. To explain decision-making in this complex social–ecological system, we combine the concept of networks of action situations (NAS) with the political economy concept of the social contract. While the NAS allows a systematic exploration of the system, the concept of the social contract allows a deeper understanding of how informal institutions and power influence the system. Besides a comprehensive literature review, we draw on social network mapping and 67 semi-structured interviews with relevant stakeholders. We find that the main conflict arises between a heterogeneous group of farmers, who use groundwater for irrigation agriculture supported by a strong political lobby, and the water authorities, which rely on the aquifer for domestic water supply at national level. The original wetland with its diverse ecosystem services has largely disappeared and its remainder is maintained artificially. Our analysis reveals that a diversity of action situations, including water, agricultural, environmental, energy, and land governance, but also the monarchy’s underlying social contract and the informal concept of wasta, influence outcomes on the ground. We show that no panacea exists, but that systems thinking may help identify a range of intervention points, some more sensitive than others, that could support a social–ecological transformation towards sustainability.

PENGELOLAAN SUMBER DAYA AIR PARTISIPATIF DI WILAYAH HULU DAERAH ALIRAN SUNGAI BIALO, SULAWESI SELATAN (Participatory Water Resources Management in the Bialo Upstream Watershed, South Sulawesi)

Poor watershed management has resulted in environmental degradation and has resulted in increasingly competitive use of water resources. The balance between demand and supply of water in the upstream watershed area as a water recharge area becomes difficult to obtain. The main parties most affected are the poor in the upstream watershed. This research was carried out in two villages in Bulukumba Regency and Bantaeng Regency, South Sulawesi with the aim of producing an effective and efficient residential-based independent water resource management model in the upstream watershed that ensures a balance between demand and sustainable supply. The participatory action research (PAR) method is used as an approach in conducting research. PAR prioritizes participatory action, assessment, and learning through regular mentoring to encourage interactive community participation. In describing the general condition of the research location, qualitative descriptive analysis was used. Domestic water supply and demand are calculated based on the number and rate of population growth. The results showed that the settlement-based water management model in the two villages was able to produce water that exceeds the need and in sufficient quantity and quality in a sustainable manner. From the process of implementing the activities for 3 years, it can be seen that the PAR approach with mentoring has an impact on increasing the community's ability, self-confidence, and increasing their motivation to manage their natural resources better together. The PAR process also triggers an increase in public perception and trust in assistance from outside parties so that subsequent programs are more easily accepted by the community

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Poor watershed management has resulted in environmental degradation and has resulted in increasingly competitive use of water resources. The balance between demand and supply of water in the upstream watershed area as a water recharge area becomes difficult to obtain. The main parties most affected are the poor in the upstream watershed. This research was carried out in two villages in Bulukumba Regency and Bantaeng Regency, South Sulawesi with the aim of producing an effective and efficient residential-based independent water resource management model in the upstream watershed that ensures a balance between demand and sustainable supply. The participatory action research (PAR) method is used as an approach in conducting research. PAR prioritizes participatory action, assessment, and learning through regular mentoring to encourage interactive community participation. In describing the general condition of the research location, qualitative descriptive analysis was used. Domestic water supply and demand are calculated based on the number and rate of population growth. The results showed that the settlement-based water management model in the two villages was able to produce water that exceeds the need and in sufficient quantity and quality in a sustainable manner. From the process of implementing the activities for 3 years, it can be seen that the PAR approach with mentoring has an impact on increasing the community's ability, self-confidence, and increasing their motivation to manage their natural resources better together. The PAR process also triggers an increase in public perception and trust in assistance from outside parties so that subsequent programs are more easily accepted by the community.

EVALUATION OF WATER QUALITY THROUGH WATER QUALITY INDEX (WQI), GOMTI RIVER, JAUNPUR CITY, INDIA

Jaunpur is an ancient city situated on the bank of River Gomti which bisects the municipal area of Jaunpur city (located between 25°44’ to 25°46’ North latitude and 82°40’ to 82°43’ East longitude) in the north and south directions. Population growth and urbanisation rate in the city is very high during the last few decades. The rate of environmental degradation has accelerated due to the population growth and the process of urbanisation and industrialisation has increased the level of pollutants. All the sources of water in Jaunpur city have been deteriorated with the growth of population, urbanisation and industrialization. The river serves as a major source of domestic water supply of the Jaunpur city, subsequently; the river receives back the untreated domestic wastewater from Jaunpur city (about 450 mld) directly during its course. It causes the river water quality deterioration. While entering the city Gomti river water quality can be seen less polluted but it increases as it run in the city core. The study aims to determine the water quality of river Gomti in Jaunpur city. Water quality variables are integrated to determine the water quality index value along the river. In order to determine the water quality, seven stations were selected along the stretch of river. Data have been collected on the water quality from Gomti river through sampling and analysis for pre and post monsoon, 2015 and 2016. The Water Quality Index (WQI) was calculated using the Weighted Arithmetic Index method. This method appears to be more systematic and gives comparative evaluation of the water quality of sampling stations. It is also helpful for public to understand the quality of water as well as being a useful tool in many ways in the field of water quality management.

Household attitudes toward wastewater recycling in Saudi Arabia

Domestic water supply is an essential but challenging public service, especially in countries with rapid population growth and limited freshwater resources. Wastewater recycling has now become a sustainable source of domestic water supply worldwide. In Saudi Arabia, the energy-intensive desalination process meets over 60% of municipal water demand, rising by about 6% within the last two decades. The government has set an ambitious target of complete recycling of treated wastewater in major cities by 2040. Based on a questionnaire survey of 625 households, this study investigates household willingness to reuse treated greywater (TG) for non-drinking domestic applications and the factors that influence their attitudes toward wastewater recycling. The findings indicate more acceptability (agree or strongly agree) of reusing TG for laundering (males: 36.9%, females: 31.7%) than bathing (males: 11.6%, females: 12.1%). Chi-Square analyses show that residential location, age, and education significantly influence household attitudes to reuse TG, but gender and nationality do not. There is more prospect of agreeing to reuse TG for laundering than bathing across all ages groups, residential locations, nationalities, and genders. Educational attainment is the only significant predictor of the likelihood of using TG for bathing and laundering with an odds ratio of 1.26 and 1.04, respectively. Age and gender are significant predictors of the odds of reusing TG for laundering only. Behavioral change campaigns are key to scaling up wastewater recycling to reduce reliance on expensive seawater desalination and dwindling freshwater resources.

Assessmening water quality index for Chau Pha Lake in Viet Nam

Chau Pha Lake is one of the large reservoirs providing water for domestic, irrigation and production of people in Phu My town, Ba Ria Vung Tau province. This study was conducted to analyze the parameters of pH, temperature, DO, BOD5, COD, N-NH4+, P-PO43-, TSS, turbidity, total Coliform on 16 samples in 2020 and the water quality index calculation WQI. The analysis results show that the water quality of Chau Pha lake in the rainy season is quite good, all parameters reach the limit value A2 according to QCVN 08:2015/BTNMT; however, in the dry season, the values of parameters DO, BOD5, P-PO43-, TSS exceed the limit value A2 but not significantly; WQI values fluctuate at a fairly high level from 71 to 92, which is correlated with turbidity, COD, and BOD5 parameters. Thus, the average WQI of the lake reaches 85.4 points, corresponding to level 2 (green) - water used for domestic water supply purposes but needs appropriate treatment measures.

Spatial and Temporal Evolution of Groundwater Chemistry of Baotu Karst Water System at Northern China

Karst water quality degradation has been a challenge for domestic and industrial water supplies worldwide. To reveal the possible factors response for karst water quality degradation, Baotu karst spring system is studied as an representative example. In this study, a hydrogeochemical investigation and mathematical, statistical, and geochemical modeling was conducted together to identify the major hydrochemical processes involved in the degradation process. It is found that the karst water is normally fresh, neutral-to-slightly alkaline, with calcium and magnesium as the predominant cations, and bicarbonate and sulfate as the predominant anions. The abnormally high chloride (95.05 mg/L) and nitrate concentrations (148.4 mg/L) give clues to the potential source of contamination in some karst water. The main hydrochemical facies of karst water are HCO3-Ca and HCO3 × SO4-Ca, accounting for 76% of water samples. The water hydrochemistry is controlled mainly by the dissolution of carbonate minerals (calcite, dolomite), followed by the dissolution of silicate and gypsum. The dissolution of calcite and dolomite mostly happens in the recharge area. In the discharge area, the karst water is basically in equilibrium with calcite. The negative SI value of gypsum represents that the water–gypsum interaction is dominated by dissolution along the whole flow path. Cation exchange is observed in the karst water in the indirect recharge area. Along the flow path, the contents of chloride, sulfate, nitrate, and TDS (Total dissolved solids, abbreviated TDS, indicates how many milligrams of dissolved solids are dissolved in one liter of water) vary significantly, which is mostly affected by pollution from human industrial and agricultural activities. The concentrations of major ions were maintained at a low level (<20 mg/L) in the 1960s in karst water. The fast elevation of the parameter values has occurred in the past two decades. The temporal elevation of some pollutants in karst water suggest that global changes (acid rain) and human activity (such as overusing fertilizer) are main factors resulting in the degradation of karst water quality in the study area. The results of this paper provide invaluable information for the management and protection of karst water resources in the urban and rural areas.

PROCESSING SENTINEL-1A IMAGES USING SENTINEL APPLICATION PLATFORM SOFTWARE TO GENERATE INTERFEROGRAM FOR MEASURE GROUND DEFORMATION IN KELANTAN

Land subsidence are deposition processes that lead to the earth's surface sinking slowly or suddenly as a result of movement of underground structures. It occurs when the amount of underground water has been pumped out from the certain types of sedimentary rock such as fine grains. Over-exploitation of subsurface water causes compression between clay and silt, resulting in land subsidence. Since 1935, Kelantan has relied on subsurface water as a daily requirement. There are 70% of the total domestic water supply in Kelantan is from groundwater. Consequently, the objective of this study is to monitor groundwater extraction-induced land deformation using Persistent Scatterer (PS) InSAR technique. The PSI method involves the use of large numbers of stack interferograms to determine and monitor deformation. The purpose of the study is to show how to generate interferograms from Sentinel-1A images using the SentiNel Application Platform (SNAP) software before exporting them to the Stanford Method for Persistent Scatterers (StaMPS). Furthermore, this study will focus on the state of Kelantan where the specific places involved in groundwater extractions are in Pintu Geng, Tanjung Mas and Tumpat. This paper will demonstrate how to use the SNAP software to process data.

Assessment of groundwater quality in Randublatung Groundwater Basin

Groundwater is used for domestic and industrial water supply and irrigation. Land use in the Randublatung groundwater basin is mainly agricultural, using groundwater as the primary source. The present study aims to assess the groundwater quality in Randublatung groundwater basin. Groundwater quality in the study area, 13 groundwater samples were collected and analyzed for various parameters. Physicochemical parameters of groundwater such as Electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), pH, Chloride (Cl), Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Sulfate (SO4), Bicarbonate (HCO3), Nitrate (NO3) were determined. A chemical index like percentage of sodium, sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), permeability index (PI), Kelly Index, and Magnesium ratio can be used to determine groundwater quality for irrigation. From the study, 3 of 13 samples are suitable for drinking. Based on Wilcox classification, 23% of the groundwater samples are suitable for irrigation. From the USSL chart, there are four types of water quality. All groundwater samples are in a low sodium hazard condition based on the sodium absorption ratio. The permeability index and magnesium ratio indicate that all groundwater samples are of good quality for irrigation utility. Based on the Kelly index, there is one sample unsuitable for irrigation.

Public perceptions and perspectives on alternative sources of water for reuse generated at the household level

AbstractStudying perceptions about reuse of alternative water sources informs about conditions necessary for transition to large-scale decentralized water reuse. We administered a perceptions survey to the public based on results of initial open interviews of water management experts in Israel. Experts indicated their views on impediments to widespread household water reuse which became the basis for developing the questionnaire. The latter aimed to understand views among the general public of: (a) willingness to adopt reuse practices from three sources: greywater, air conditioner condensate and roof-harvested rainwater; and (b) preferences for targeted use of these three types of reused water. The survey elicited 372 responses. A maximum-likelihood regression analysis was conducted using independent variables (i.e., demographic characteristics, individual positions regarding the state of the country's water resources and plans for the provision of domestic water (i.e., desalination), knowledge of the reuse practices and views about risks from various uses of the reused water, including off-premise uses). Willingness to implement reuse practices served as the dependent variable. We found that respondents indicating that they heard of the reuse of the particular types of reuse practices (variable: ‘Knowledge’) was the most significant of the independent variables for all three alternative water sources. Also, using an analytic hierarchy process, we determined that health risks were much more important when compared to convenience of use and costs under hypothetical scenarios of both moderate and significant savings in monthly water expenditures.

The complex nature of household water supply: an evidence-based assessment of urban water access in Southwest Nigeria

Abstract Access to domestic water supply is a big challenge for many households in developing countries, as a large number of households do not have access to municipal water sources. The purpose of this study is to investigate the nature of access and characteristics of water sources and their impact on the choice and usage of water by providing empirical and statistical evidence. A survey of 1,300 households was conducted across six major cities in Southwest Nigeria, using structured questionnaires, field surveys, personal interviews, and observations. The data obtained were analysed using SPSS 27 for descriptive statistics and characterised using enhancement-based strategies. The result showed that 5% of respondents had access to pipe water, 66% used private wells and boreholes, and 29% used off-site water sources. The study discovered that 15 different water sources with unique attributes were consumed. The daily consumption ranged between 301 and 361 and 1,153 and 1,421 litres per household (L/hh/d) for those using off-site and on-site water sources, respectively. This study provides new insights with empirical evidence. As such, there is a need to re-evaluate the present water supply policy implementation, funding approach, and level of coverage. Additional policies that support and fund decentralised water projects, without compromising on water quality, should be provided, since they are more accessible to the people.