Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking Victims Research Articles

The ethics and urgency of identifying domestic minor sex trafficking victims in clinical settings

A critical opportunity for identifying children experiencing domestic minor sex trafficking exists in healthcare settings. This quantitative study documented the disconnect between youth seeking help and interventions offered by healthcare providers. Ninety-one sex youth exploited through sex trafficking answered questions detailing their experiences of seeking medical treatment for injuries associated with selling or trading sex. Healthcare providers who were aware that injuries were sustained due to sex trafficking did not always alert legal or mandated reporting authorities. This analysis identified violations of the four pillars of ethical healthcare. This investigation revealed lost opportunities to intervene on behalf of youth suffering trauma and abuse from sex trafficking highlighting the necessity for a formal protocol in healthcare settings to effectively intervene.

Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking: Applying a Trauma-Informed Approach in Healthcare Settings.

The original Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000 (P.L. 106-386) defined human trafficking as (A) sex trafficking in which a commercial sex act is induced by force, fraud, or coercion, or in which the person induced to perform such an act has not attained 18 years of age; or (B) the recruitment, harboring, transportation, provision, or obtaining of a person for labor or services, through the use of force, fraud, or coercion for the purpose of subjection to involuntary servitude, peonage, debt bondage, or slavery. (§ 103[8][A–B]) This legislation established that any minor used in a commercial sex act is a victim of trafficking, regardless of whether their actions were allegedly voluntary (Finklea et al., 2015; Institute of Medicine [IOM] & National Research Council [NRC], 2014). Domestic minor sex trafficking (DMST) is the commercial sexual exploitation of U.S. children and youth. DMST victims experience a range of harmful sequelae, as seen in Table 1 (Ark of Hope, 2019; Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2017; Sapiro et al., 2016; Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration [SAMHSA], 2014; Shared Hope International, 2020; U.S. Department of Justice, 2020).

Laypersons’ recognition of and attribution of blame in situations involving domestic minor sex trafficking

ABSTRACT Successful identification of domestic minor sex trafficking (DMST) remains challenging. Laypersons could play a significant role in identifying victims, but only if laypersons recognize trafficking situations as such and do not incorrectly attribute responsibility to victims. In the current study, we examined laypersons’ perceptions of situations highly suggestive of DMST. Participants (N = 320), recruited from an internet-based crowd-sourcing platform, read a vignette describing a highly suspicious situation involving a minor and adult in a hotel room with cash on the minor’s person. Participants answered questions about what they thought was happening and about their general knowledge of trafficking. The vignette systematically varied the age (13, 15, 17 years) and gender (boy, girl) of the victim to include the most common ages and genders of known DMST victims. Overall, just over half (61%) of participants recognized that a crime occurred, more often with younger (70%) than older (55%) minors. Participants tended to place some responsibility on older minors for their situation, as did participants who exhibited lower levels of general knowledge of trafficking. Overall, the results reveal substantial limitations in laypersons’ understanding of DMST, including who is responsible, highlighting the need for targeted educational campaigns to improve that understanding.

Effectiveness of TF‐CBT with sex trafficking victims in a secure post‐adjudication facility

AbstractThis study evaluated the course and degree of treatment effect for trauma‐focused cognitive behavioral therapy (TF‐CBT) for decreasing symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among adjudicated girls who are victims of domestic minor sex trafficking (DMST). We also aimed to understand the perceptions of the treatment while recovering from trauma symptoms and the lived experience of DMST victims engaging in TF‐CBT while living in the post‐adjudication facility. Participants were three adolescents who self‐identified as Hispanic. Results of a mixed‐method research design with multiple baselines indicated TF‐CBT was efficacious with two out of three of the girls in reducing PTSD symptoms. Qualitative data yielded five themes depicting the concurrent phases of treatment experience: protest, suppression, brokenness, stability, and breakthrough. All three girls gave voice to their experience participating in treatment and their experience engaging in treatment while living in a secure post‐adjudication juvenile facility. Implications for use of TF‐CBT with victims of DMST are provided.

“We Can Work across Agencies to Build a Powerful, Statewide Response”: Considering the Public Health Department’s Response to Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking

ABSTRACT This study explored public health department employees’ perceptions of, and experiences with, identifying and serving victims of domestic minor sex trafficking (DMST). A sample of 47 health department employees completed a mixed method web-based survey about victim identification, DMST myths, and assets and barriers to serving DMST victims. Less than one-third of participants reported that their organizations had a screening tool to identify victims, and another third were unsure if their organization did or did not. Few participants were confident that they could identify DMST victims. Several barriers to serving DMST victims exist, including issues in identification, resource shortages, and a failure to acknowledge the systemic issues that contribute to the complex nature of DMST. Participants identified strong collaborations with anti-trafficking organizations and state legislation that supported Safe Harbor policies as assets in their anti-trafficking work. The present study supports several UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 5.2 and SDG 8.7). When public health department employees are educated about domestic minor sex trafficking, have the tools to identify victims, and the resources to serve them, they can more effectively limit further victimization and ultimately work toward preventing minors from being exploited in the first place.

Rigor and Respect: Recruitment Strategies for Engaging Vulnerable Populations in Research.

Engaging vulnerable populations in research is a critical focus for researchers seeking to find ways to improve safety and well-being for broader populations. Vulnerabilities often co-occur, meaning that individuals may experience vulnerabilities in multiple facets of their life (e.g., victim of abuse and mental health diagnoses). Unfortunately, many vulnerable populations remain underinvestigated due to difficulty reaching, engaging, and safely including such populations in research. While most researchers assert the importance of including vulnerable populations in research, few actively and successfully recruit them. Many vulnerable populations are understandably weary of research participation. Victims and survivors of domestic minor sex trafficking (DMST) are one such vulnerable population, in that identification may incur substantial risk for DMST victim's physical safety and well-being. In addition, DMST victims and survivors often experience co-occurring vulnerabilities including substance use, histories of abuse, delinquency, and poor mental health. Accordingly, they are notoriously difficult to recruit for research participation. The current paper uses a detailed case example to describe the recruitment and retention strategies used by one researcher to promote DMST survivor research participation. A candid account of challenges, successes, and lessons learned is offered in service of building methodological techniques for recruitment that both honor participant experiences while championing methodological rigor. Findings detail the importance of trust and a trauma-informed approach to qualitative data collection and analysis. Authors include specific strategies to promote comfort and candor amid traumatic response in ways that may empower research participants. A detailed discussion of how such strategies may be adapted for vulnerable populations beyond DMST victims and survivors is provided.

Recognizing the Risk Factors, Signs, and Symptoms of Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking in Mental Health Clinical Practice.

The purpose of the current article is to educate psychiatric providers on domestic minor sex trafficking (DMST). Psychiatric providers (e.g., psychiatric-mental health nurse practitioners, psychiatrists, physician assistants, therapists, case managers) interact with victims of sex trafficking but may fail to recognize the signs of victimization and the risk factors associated with becoming a victim of DMST. This educational article offers an overview of the definitions of sex trafficking, and the risk factors, prevalence, and health consequences of DMST. It also summarizes what is known about how those at-risk for DMST and DMST victims interact with the mental health care system. Mental health professionals provide a crucial point of contact with these populations and must strive to prevent, identify, and respond to DMST and at-risk youths. [Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services, 58(11), 21-28.].

An Analysis of Romantic Partnership Dynamics in Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking Case Files

Domestic minor sex trafficking (DMST) is the commercial sexual exploitation of a minor citizen or legal resident within the United States. Previous research suggests that although DMST is often discussed as though it is a uniform phenomenon, traffickers may use different tactics and exploit different victim vulnerabilities depending upon their established relationships with those who are at-risk for trafficking. The purpose of this qualitative study, therefore, is to explore the relationship patterns and dynamics that emerge between DMST victims and their romantic partner traffickers. This study utilizes the secondary case files of 38 domestic minors who were trafficked for sex by their romantic partners in one state in the United States between 2012 and 2017. The study is conceptualized according to the principles of directed content analysis and multiple case study design and relies heavily on previous research findings related to victim-trafficker relationship typology. The authors conducted two rounds of coding before applying themes to the case files. The analysis revealed that DMST victims trafficked by romantic partners are often influenced by environmental circumstances, such as gang involvement and family systems involvement. Romantic partner traffickers use specific recruitment tactics to entrap their victims, and exercise methods such as caregiving, sexual violence, and psychological violence to maintain control over their victims. Study results provide a significant extension to the anti-trafficking field's understanding of DMST and the romantic partner relationships that underpin it. The results suggest that anti-trafficking advocates should screen at-risk adolescents for gang involvement, family involvement in the sex industry. They should also educate at-risk adolescents about DMST as a potential component of teen dating violence.

Trafficked by a Friend: A Qualitative Analysis of Adolescent Trafficking Victims’ Archival Case Files

Domestic minor sex trafficking (DMST) is the commercial sexual exploitation of a minor citizen within the United States. Previous research suggests that traffickers use different tactics depending upon their established relationships with at-risk youth. The purpose of this qualitative content analysis, therefore, is to explore the circumstances and control tactics associated with DMST victimization within friend-type trafficking relationships. This analysis utilizes the archival case notes of 66 minors who were trafficked for sex by their friends in one state in the United States. Findings reveal that DMST victims trafficked by friends perceive that they have financial agency, that their traffickers use control tactics against them, and that other women are involved in their exploitation. Recommendations emanating from this study point social workers towards prevention and practice strategies that take into account victims’ specific experiences with trafficking entry and their barriers to exit.

The role of the internet in the grooming, exploitation, and exit of United States domestic minor sex trafficking victims

ABSTRACTThe Internet (e.g., social networking, online marketing, and encryption technologies) has been identified as a means to facilitate domestic minor sex trafficking (DMST; a.k.a., commercial sexual exploitation of children). At the same time, the Internet is increasingly being identified as a method of primary prevention and intervention for DMST among youth. However, to-date there are limited examinations of the role of the Internet in the lives of youth who experience DMST victimization. The current study aims to consider the role of the Internet in DMST grooming, exploitation, and exit. In-depth, semi-structured qualitative interviews were conducted with 20 service providers in North Carolina and Texas. Interviews were digitally recorded, transcribed verbatim, and coded line-by-line using a grounded theory approach. Results feature two overarching themes in service provider interviews: 1) Initial exploitation and 2) Exit from exploitation. Within each of these larger themes were subthemes including technology facilitated risk and prevention needs. Overall, these qualitative findings reveal the role of the Internet in: (1) Facilitating DMST, (2) Preventing Internet-facilitated DMST, and (3) Victim exit and survivorship. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Exploring the relationship between domestic minor sex trafficking myths, victim identification, and service provision

BackgroundThe onus of sex trafficking victim identification currently falls to professionals in youth-serving organizations. Accurate identification of domestic minor sex trafficking victims (DMST) and subsequent delivery of services can be impeded by common myths related to human trafficking. ObjectiveDetermine if human service professionals understand the difference between myths and facts pertaining to sex trafficking and if their knowledge affects subsequent service provision. Participants and settingProfessionals (n = 69) represented youth-serving organizations from a large metropolitan city in the Southwestern United States. MethodsData was collected in a cross-sectional survey from March 2016 to April 2016. ResultsA minority of professionals working in youth-serving organizations believed DMST myths, though administrators most commonly believed the myth that force, fraud, or coercion are required in DMST. Most professionals could not provide an accurate number of victims identified and felt their organizations would benefit from further training. A statistically significant relationship (p < .05) was observed between the belief that “elements of physical force, restraint, bondage, and/or violence” must be present in DMST and participants’ ability to identify victims served by their organizations in a given year. Organizations reported that they failed to provide services requested by DMST victims. ConclusionsThe persistence of DMST myths likely hampers victim identification and tailored service delivery. Cross-sector collaborations are needed to ensure victims’ needs are met. Trainings are needed that cover the legal definitions of domestic minor sex trafficking and victim identification and train on accurate identifiers. Training initiatives should include survivors to ensure practices are trauma-informed.

The embodiment of complex trauma in domestic minor sex trafficking victims and the dangers of misidentification

ABSTRACTDomestic minor sex trafficking (DMST) victims face many barriers to getting appropriate, trauma-informed treatment. Many of these victims experience childhood trauma by trusted adults or by non-familial perpetrators of abuse. Complex trauma, later defined in depth, captures what many DMST victims endure as the harm that they experience is ongoing and cannot be identified as a singular event. Due to the complex trauma these victims experience, they become dissociated as a tool for survival. As a result of trauma, many DMST victims do not embody protective skills, and attempt to gain control of their lives through maladaptive behaviors that can lead to re-victimization. I begin by discussing the literature around embodiment, trauma and the body, and dissociation to demonstrate why a trauma-informed approach in identification and therapy is important when working with DMST victims. Subsequently, I present a case study to explore an example of how the presentation of trauma, or ways it is masked, can lead to misidentification. This case study will illustrate how social workers can effectively advocate for DMST victims at the early stages of identification and also foster a safe, accepting therapeutic space to assist these clients in trust-building and identify formation. Trauma-informed care needs to be integrated from the first interaction with law enforcement, throughout the development of a treatment plan with providers, and for the duration of the therapeutic relationship.

Obtaining social justice for victims of domestic minor sex trafficking

AbstractIn 2000, the U.S. Congress passed the Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act (TVPA) which focused on social justice for victims of human trafficking in foreign countries. The TVPA was soon revised to include domestic minor sex trafficking (DMST) victims. Two major problems continue to complicate the lives of DMST victims: (1) the transitioning social construction of this population and (2) conflicting federal, state, and local laws that yield inconsistent policies for these youth. The numerous institutions involved with these minors which hold different values and perspectives further complicate the issue. This article examines the effect of transitioning social constructions on this population and the problems, policies, and politics that result in social injustice toward the youth who fall victim to this crime.

Agency and social constraint among victims of domestic minor sex trafficking: A method for measuring free will

Human agency has been a focus of philosophical and sociological concern from early debates about “free will” to recent themes in poststructuralism. Debates over the proper understanding of structure, agency, and constraint are hindered by the fact that few if any empirical measures of these concepts have been proposed. As sociologists have long recognized, the total results of the decisions of a group's members can be viewed as a distribution, and parameters can be fit to obtain a description of observed distributions. Here we propose the use of negative binomial curve to model population survival outcomes, and suggest that the parameters of such a curve represent reasonable surrogates for measures of agency, opportunity, and constraint when the decision process can be thought of as akin to a Bernoulli process. To provide an illustration of this approach, we discuss participation of legal minors in commercial sex (commonly referred to as victims of domestic minor sex trafficking (VDMST) or commercially sexually exploited children (CSEC)). In popular and advocacy-based accounts, considerable focus has been placed on the relative powerlessness of female VDMST. Using the proposed modeling technique, we test the extent to which male versus female VDMST appear to possess greater agency (or function under more limiting constraint) when deciding whether to remain in sex work or “leave the life”. Contrary to existing literature, our results indicate that male and female underage sex workers are experiencing similar levels of agency, and differ mainly in opportunity, and constraint. Other individual circumstances are shown to contribute to varying levels of agency and constraint among sex workers, including street work status, community trouble, drug use, and the availability of an alternative income.

Systematic review of empiricism and theory in domestic minor sex trafficking research

ABSTRACTEmpiricism and the application of human behavior theory to inquiry are regarded as markers of high-quality research. Unfortunately, scholars have noted that there are many gaps in theory and empiricism within the human trafficking literature, calling into question the legitimacy of policies and practices that are derived from the available data. To date, there has not been an analysis of the extent to which empirical methods and human behavior theory have been applied to domestic minor sex trafficking (DMST) research as a subcategory of human trafficking inquiry. To fill this gap in the literature, this systematic review was designed to assess the degree to which DMST publications are a) empirical, and b) apply human behavior theory to inquiry. This analysis also focuses on answering research questions related to patterns within DMST study data sources, and patterns of human behavior theory application. The results of this review indicate that a minority of sampled DMST publications are empirical, a minority of those articles that were empirical apply a specific human behavior theory within the research design and reporting of results, a minority of articles utilize data collected directly from DMST victims, and that there are no discernible patterns in the application of human behavior theory to DMST research. This research note suggests that DMST research is limited by the same challenges as the larger body of human trafficking scholarship. Based upon these overarching findings, specific recommendations are offered to DMST researchers who are committed to enhancing the quality of DMST scholarship.

“Sometimes, Somebody Just Needs Somebody – Anybody – to Care:” The power of interpersonal relationships in the lives of domestic minor sex trafficking survivors

Domestic minor sex trafficking (DMST) is the recruitment, harboring, transportation, provision, or obtaining of U.S. minors for the purposes of a commercial sex act. DMST victims and survivors often become involved with state-level systems including the child welfare and/or juvenile justice systems. This study presents exploratory qualitative findings regarding the role of interpersonal relationships in the lives of system-involved DMST survivors from the perspectives of DMST survivors. Results indicate survivors perceive interpersonal relationships as key to promoting risk, providing protection, and fostering resiliency over DMST. Findings from the current study not only provide a context for understanding the role of interpersonal relationships in the lives of DMST survivors but also point to directions for development of interventions targeted toward this population.

Domestic minor sex trafficking among adjudicated male youth: prevalence and links to treatment

Domestic minor sex trafficking (DMST) is the sexual exploitation of citizens (or lawful residents) of the United States, aged 18 or younger. DMST victims are diverse in age, race, and socioeconomic status, and are especially vulnerable. Most victims have a history of abuse and neglect, and many have had contact with the juvenile justice system. This exploratory study examines DMST prevalence, as well as potential risk factors for DMST involvement among a unique population of adjudicated male youth. Secondary data analysis was conducted with data collected from 800 adjudicated male youth using standardized measures including the Million Adolescent Clinical Inventory and the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire. Binary logistic regression was used to investigate the relationships between the probability of DMST involvement and substance misuse, childhood sexual abuse, and levels of sexual discomfort. Results revealed that substance misuse and childhood sexual abuse were significantly positively associated with the probability of DMST victimization; however, sexual discomfort was significantly negatively associated with the probability of DMST victimization. Implications for policy and practice are discussed.

Trafficking Experiences and Psychosocial Features of Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking Victims

Domestic minor sex trafficking (DMST) is an increasingly recognized traumatic crime premised upon the control, abuse, and exploitation of youth. By definition, DMST is the "recruitment, harboring, transportation, provision, or obtaining of a person for the purpose of a commercial sex act" within domestic borders, in which the person is a U.S. citizen or lawful permanent resident under the age of 18 years. The present study described the demographics, psychosocial features, and trafficking experiences (e.g., environments of recruitment, relationship to trafficker, solicitation) of DMST victims. A total of 25 medical records of patients under the age of 18 who disclosed their involvement in DMST to medical providers between August 1, 2013, and November 30, 2015, were retrospectively reviewed. The majority of patients were female, and the mean age was 15.4 years old. Most patients lived at home and/or were accompanied at the evaluation by a parent/guardian. High rates of alcohol or substance use/abuse (92%), being placed in a group home or child protective services (CPS) custody (28%), a history of runaway behavior (60%), and/or exposure to other child maltreatment (88%) were identified. Our data indicated variation in reported trafficking experiences; however, patients commonly reported an established relationship with their trafficker (60%) and recruitment occurred primarily as a result of financial motivation (52%). Patients were prevalently recruited in settings where there were face-to-face interactions (56%), whereas the solicitation of sex-buyers occurred primarily online (92%). Victims who disclosed involvement in DMST had complicated psychosocial histories that may have rendered them susceptible to their exploitation, and reported a variety of DMST experiences perpetuated by traffickers. Although preliminary in nature, this study provided empirical evidence of the predisposing factors, motivations, and experiences of victimized youth uniquely from the perspective of patients who sought medical care.

Putting the Pieces Back Together: A Group Intervention for Sexually Exploited Adolescent Girls

Domestic minor sex trafficking (DMST) is an emerging problem affecting adolescents, families, and communities throughout the United States. Despite a growing awareness of the problem, information regarding treatment is limited. This article describes a pilot group intervention created for use with DMST victims, focusing specifically on areas that were critical to the development and life of the group: (1) providing education about DMST, (2) reducing shame and addressing stigma, (3) mutual aid, and (4) managing strong emotions through the development of new coping skills. Process examples are given to illustrate this pilot intervention, and recommendations for research and practice are discussed.

Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking: A Social Work Perspective on Misidentification, Victims, Buyers, Traffickers, Treatment, and Reform of Current Practice

Domestic minor sex trafficking (DMST) has been steadily on the rise in the United States, with estimates between 15,000 and 50,000 victims per year. Actual estimates of DMST victims are difficult to determine based on misidentification, conflicts between state and federal laws about age of consent and charges, perceptions of the victim, as well as lack of knowledge regarding the prevalence and dynamics of sex trafficking of minors. Oftentimes, child victims come from multi-problem homes and have already experienced abuse and neglect, which further complicates treatment and services. This article explores the emerging literature and defines the problem and identifies laws, statues, and definitions of the problem. It also reviews the literature on victim, buyer, and trafficker characteristics. Organized crime's role in this growing epidemic is explained as well as treatment options and recommendations for future social work practice at the micro-, mezzo-, and macro-levels.