Docile Behavior Research Articles

Resequencing of reindeer genomes provides clues to their docile habits.

Reindeer have long been served as vital subsistence resources for inhabitants of Arctic and subarctic regions owing to their domestication. However, the evolutionary relationships and divergence times among different reindeer populations, genetic traits that distinguish domesticated reindeer, and factors that contribute to their relative docility compared with that of other Cervidae specie, remain unclear. In this study, we sequenced the genomes of 32 individuals from wild and domestic reindeer populations that inhabit Arctic and subarctic regions. We found that reindeer experienced 2 or more independent domestication events characterized by weak artificial selection pressure and limited significant differences in genomic parameters between wild and domestic populations. Alterations in conserved noncoding elements in the reindeer genomes, particularly those associated with nervous system development, may have contributed to their domestication by rendering the nervous system less responsive. Together, our results suggest that inherent species-specific traits, rather than intense artificial selection, may have played a significant role in the relatively docile behavior of reindeer and offer valuable insights into the domestication process of these animals.

Esporotriose em porquinho da índia (Cavia porcellus) - relato de caso

ABSTRACT The guinea pig is a South American rodent with a docile behavior that has been gaining popularity as a pet, increasing the search for specialized veterinary care for the species. In the clinical casuistry, about half of the visits are due to dermatological changes, among which fungal infections are uncommon. Sporotrichosis is a zoonosis caused by the fungus of the genus Sporothrix, widely distributed in nature, which contaminates the host from the inoculation of the agent in lesions and mucous membranes and has been reported in several species of animals. Felines with access to the street are the main disseminators of the agent due to the behaviors of the species and can contaminate other animals and humans. The most evident clinical signs are crusted, exudative and difficult to heal lesions, requiring complementary tests such as PCR and culture to confirm the diagnosis. The specific treatment is time-consuming, using antifungal drugs such as itraconazole, which can be associated with topical treatment to aid healing. Given the difficulty of finding references about this zoonosis, it is difficult to obtain reliable data on the epidemiology of this disease. The present work describes the first report of sporotrichosis in guinea pig in Brazil, the complementary examinations that resulted in the definitive diagnosis and the effective therapeutic response, to contribute to possible work and research.

Assessing the Impact of Boer Goat x Indigenous Goat Crossbreeding on Reproductive Performance and Farmer Perceptions in Southern Ethiopia.

Crossbreeding aims to increase the productivity of local or indigenous animals by introducing exotic breeds. This study aims to assess the effects of crossbreeding using 50% Boer bucks crossed with Ethiopian indigenous Woyto-Guji goats and to evaluate farmers' perceptions towards crossbred kids. Data were collected from five purposively selected districts in southern Ethiopia. Personal interviews, focus group discussions (FGDs), and field observations were employed to gather information on the goat production systems and farmers' perceptions. The mean ± SD of goat flock size in the study area were 7.31 ± 5.89 heads per household (HH) with larger flock sizes observed in the Alaba zone (10.32 ± 6.56). Goats in the studied areas were primarily kept for income generation. The average age at first kidding was 11.3 ± 1.3 months. Relatively better management practices were observed for crossbred goats in the Alaba, Loko Abaya, and Gurage zones. Respondent farmers highly appreciated Boer crossbred goats due to their superior perception of attractive coat color (4.39 times greater, P < 0.001), docile behavior (3.59 times greater, P < 0.001), fast growth rate (1.64 times greater, P < 0.05), and market preference (5.81 times greater, P < 0.001). However, susceptibility to disease and drought was considered as drawbacks of crossbred kids in the studied areas. It was also reported that crossbreed goats fetched better prices than indigenous goats of a similar age group and under the same management system. All visited farmers expressed a strong interest in crossbreeding. Based on these findings, it can be concluded that Boer crossbred goats perform well in southern Ethiopia. Therefore, the continued production of crossbred kids can be disseminated to these areas. Additionally, it is suggested to consider the interests of goat producers in the remaining areas. Integrated improved management systems need to be implemented to enhance the survival of crossbred kids. Sustainable training programs should be organized for goat keepers, focusing on aspects such as crossbreeding, minimizing inbreeding, buck rotation, and improved feeding and management practices.

The unusual biology of marine file snakes with a perspective for the conservation of Acrochordus granulatus

Biodiversity and the function of tropical shallow-water marine environments are threatened by numerous anthropogenic factors, especially climate change, overharvesting of resources, and destruction of habitat. Marine snakes are important components of coastal shallow-water systems and should be considered as indicators of the health of coastal ecosystems such as mangroves. Acrochordid snakes (Acrochordidae: Acrochordus) represent a highly distinct evolutionary lineage with unusual adaptations to shallow water habitats and importance to biodiversity of tropical coastal regions. One of three congeneric species, Acrochordus granulatus (file snake), is an interesting and common inhabitant of coastal estuaries and mangroves in the Philippines. This paper reviews unusual attributes of A. granulatus and provides a perspective for its conservation in coastal habitats. Morphological, physiological, and behavioral characters of this snake are specialized for life in shallow-water marine environments such as mangroves. Unusual and specialized features confer abilities for prolonged submergence and include low metabolic rate, large capacity for oxygen storage, cutaneous gas exchange, nearly complete utilization of oxygen stores during aerobic submergence, intracardiac and cutaneous shunts for regulating blood flow, and reclusive behavior. Fresh water is required for water balance, and file snakes are dependent on rainfall in many habitats where they drink from freshwater lenses formed by precipitation on the surfaces of marine water. File snakes feed largely on fishes and are candidates as bio-indicators of the health of shallow-water coastal habitats. Attention should be given to threatening insults on coastal environments including climate change, habitat destruction, harvesting of resources, and other factors in need of research, monitoring, and plans for abatement. Importantly, conservation can be promoted by educating people about the docile behavior, unusual traits, and interesting ecology of A. granulatus. KEYWORDS: mangrove, shallow water, Acrochordidae, little file snake, conservation physiology, ecophysiology

Detection of antimicrobial resistant Salmonella enterica strains in samples of ground hedgehogs (Atelerix albiventris) reared as pets in the urban area of Santiago, Chile

The breeding of exotic pets has become a popular practice in Chile and, within this group of animals, small mammals such as guinea pigs and hedgehogs have gained importance due to their docile behaviour. The most common exotic hedgehog species in Chile is the African pygmy hedgehog (Atelerix albiventris). It has been reported that these pets are reservoirs of some zoonotic pathogens, among which Salmonella enterica constitutes an important threat for the owners. This study aimed to detect the presence of Salmonella strains in faeces from hedgehogs (Atelerix albiventris) admitted to a veterinary clinic in Santiago, Chile, and to characterise the antimicrobial susceptibility of the isolated strains. From 200 animals sampled, S. enterica was detected in 5 hedgehogs, corresponding to serotypes Muenchen (2), Infantis (2) and IV43:z4,z23:- (1). Furthermore, phenotypic antimicrobial resistance was determined in all subsp. enterica isolates. These results suggest that in Chile these exotic pets constitute a potential hazard for public health, therefore, supporting educational campaigns about basic biosecurity measures is necessary, mostly aimed at pet owners and risk groups.

Cloacoplasty in a 40-Day-Old Monk Parakeet with Cloacal Prolapse

Background: The monk parakeet (Myiopsitta monachus) is also known as the quaker parrot and belongs to the order Psittaciformes in the family Psittacidae. The cloaca is a posterior orifice common to reproductive, digestive and urinary systems and the cloacal prolapse is the displacement or inversion of its anatomic position. Nowadays, the non-conventional pet market in Brazil is rapidly growing, which demands more skills and competences from an avian veterinarian. This study case has as its main objective to present a 40-day-old monk parakeet (Myiopsitta monachus) with cloacal prolapse, treated using the cloacoplasty technique. It is important to mention that the occurrence of cloacal prolapse in this species and in such an early age is uncommon.Case: The patient presented 1 day before the physical examination an increased volume in the cloacal region and hematochezia, and diagnosed as cloacal prolapse. For the treatment, wounds were washed using physiological saline solution, ice and sugar were applied in order to reduce the edema, and mineral oil was used for repositioning the cloacal mucosa. Finally, local anesthesia was applied and 2 isolated contralateral sutures were done with the objective of reducing the sphincter’s diameter, without compromising the flow of urine and feces. The monk parakeet was treated with antibiotic Avitrin®) [oxytetracycline hydrochloride - 8.1 mg/mL] and a vermifuge [mebendazole 50 mg/mL]. A sample of feces was also obtained and sent to the Laboratory of Avian Pathology Diagnosis. The patient was discharged after 7 days of the treatment, obtaining a favorable result with no further complications.Discussion: The results of the coproparasitological examination were negative for the samples analyzed; nevertheless, the possibility of a false negative result cannot be totally dismissed. Cloacal prolapse may be related to cases of hypersexual disorder or overexertion to defecate due to intestinal parasites, posture, polyps, enteritis, neoplasm or cloacal hyperplasia. Besides that, endoparasitism is common in captive birds. For the correct treatment, proceed with a cloacoplasty, in which 1 or 2 simple sutures are made separated laterally in both sides, promoting the narrowing of the orifice. The surgeries such as the cloacoplasty are currently being defended, but in most cases as an adjuvant therapy. Cloacal prolapse in birds is a disease considered as an intestinal emergency. The techniques presented in this work demand sedation or anesthesia for the patient, which were not authorized by the tutor due to the high risk involved. However, due to the characteristic of domestication and docile behavior of the bird, it was possible to perform the 2 sutures with a local anesthetic block only. Cloacal prolapse is relatively common in adult psittacine birds, but uncommon in monk parakeets and young birds. The treatment performed was effective for the monk-parakeet presented in this study case. The authors, however, would like to strongly reinforce the need to identify the cause of cloacal prolapse in order to properly treat it. The importance of correctly identifying the anatomy of a psittacine bird as well as applying precisely the suture techniques are the most important conclusions obtained, making both the identification of the problem and its solution through surgical intervention a simpler and successful process.Keywords: birds, endoparasites, suture, wild.

Nest camouflage records on five social wasp species (Vespidae, Polistinae) from southeastern Brazil

Social insects use different strategies to defend their colonies, including camouflage. In order to expand knowledge, regarding the strategy of camouflage in social wasps, information is presented on the camouflage pattern of the species: Parachartergus smithii (De Saussure), Parachartergus wagneri Du Buysson, Chartergellus communis Richards, Metapolybia cingulata (Fabricius) and Mischocyttarus anthracinus Richards.These species are uncommon in inventory studies in Brazil. Records occur in different Conservation Units, between 2011 and 2019, in the Minas Gerais State, Brazil Southeastern. Camouflage seems to be the main defense strategy for these species, due to the color and shape of their nests in line with the substrate, as well as their docile behavior. The exception is Metapolybia cingulata, which in addition to camouflage shows aggressive behavior in some situations, which suggests the use of different strategies in the colony defense.

Colonization history and population differentiation of the Honey Bees (Apis mellifera L.) in Puerto Rico.

Honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) are the primary commercial pollinators across the world. The subspecies A. m. scutellata originated in Africa and was introduced to the Americas in 1956. For the last 60 years, it hybridized successfully with European subspecies, previous residents in the area. The result of this hybridization was called Africanized honey bee (AHB). AHB has spread since then, arriving to Puerto Rico (PR) in 1994. The honey bee population on the island acquired a mosaic of features from AHB or the European honey bee (EHB). AHB in Puerto Rico shows a major distinctive characteristic, docile behavior, and is called gentle Africanized honey bees (gAHB). We used 917 SNPs to examine the population structure, genetic differentiation, origin, and history of range expansion and colonization of gAHB in PR. We compared gAHB to populations that span the current distribution of A. mellifera worldwide. The gAHB population is shown to be a single population that differs genetically from the examined populations of AHB. Texas and PR groups are the closest genetically. Our results support the hypothesis that the Texas AHB population is the source of gAHB in Puerto Rico.

Assessment of Farmers’ Perception on Performance of Different Disseminated Breeding Ram and their Cross to Damot Sore and Merab Badewacho Worda, Southern Ethiopia

Near to 99.99 percent of sheep breeds in southern region is in the traditional way, in which indigenous breeds and types predominate. Indigenous sheep genetic improvement via 50% Dorper crossed ram introduction and community based sheep breed improvement, are found mostly under taken by southern agricultural research centre. 50% Dorper crossed ram, Bonga and doygena ram were widely distributed to different agroecology of the region. The objective of this paper is to assess the productive performance of introduced ram based farmer perceptions and to analyze performance of the introduced breeding ram in Damot sore and Merab Badewacho worda southern Ethiopia. Community based improved Doygena ram were preferred for their ability to produce multiple birth, for its attractive coat color, its resistance to health problem in Damot sore while in Merab Badewacho the breed perform less significant. Bonga ram and its F1 appreciated for fast growth and good adaptability in Merab Badewacho whereas in Damot Sore it could not perform at it is expected. Comparative performances based on farmer view show that Dorper cross were preferred for its docile behavior in Damot sore Worda. Farmer in Damot Sore Worda appreciated the doygena ram for its sexual performance/libido. Most of the respondents reported Dorper and its cross is not easily marketable. It is suggested that in Damot Sore worda more opportunity were existed to introduce improved Doygena, Bonga and Dorper ram while in Merab Badewacho efforts should be directed to develop local sheep selection or introduced Bonga ram to smallholder farmer.

Location genealogic of Expert Psychology in judicial system: ethical implications

This work is an essay from the writings of our Master's thesis in Psychology and Society of UNESP / Assis, who intends to problematize the interfaces present in the relationship between psychology and law when inserting the professional psi in judicialized environments acting as agent court in accordance with the provisions of Criminal procedure Code. The methodology chosen for us is the Foucault's genealogy, finding the writings and reflections of Michel Foucault, directions to the problematizations for us proposals on the ethical implications of the subject expert psychologist. The relations of power-knowledge that cross professional doings, the power of the watchful eye that regulates the docile behavior, examination as expected activity of professional psi as evidence in support of the decision-making process of the judge, all mechanisms of orthopedics displayed in interventions still played by psychologists that emerge in these legal areas.

Skin formulation containg Arrabidaea chica extract for wound-healing

Arrabideae chica (Bignoniaceae) popularly known as Carajiru, is a climbing plant widely distributed in South American tropical forest. Leaves of this plant are popularly use in skin diseases. (Devia et al. 2002). Wounding has a tremendous impact in healthcare economy; especially chronic wounds represent a major health burden. Recent investigations have shown that plant-derived secondary compounds can serve as new lead compounds for improvement of wound healing. Studies conducted at CPQBA-Unicamp showed that the crude A. chica extract has antiulcerogenic and healing action. The cutaneous ulcer lesion index was evaluated on animal experimental model with Wistar rats. The ulcers were assessed daily by measuring the contraction area and calculation of the percentage decrease (Jorge et.al. 2008). After 5 days of treatment the animals in the negative control groups (saline) or vehicle (Natrosol, Carbopol, cream W/O and cream O/W) were stressed presenting redness, exudate and pus, whereas animals treated with A. chica extract formulation had a more docile behavior and without pus. After 10 days the formulation evaluated in in vivo wound healing experimental models demonstrated 70 to 80% decrease of the ulcerated skin area compared with 37% reduction from the control group. The hidroxiproline content in wound tissue treated with different formulation was observed for the Natrosol TM gel formulation containing 0,093 µg.mL-1 of crude extract when compared to other control (0,019 µg.mL-1) and vehicle (0,028 µg.mL-1). Histopathological study was showed that well organized fibers. Quality control of the crude extract was accessed by monitoring carajurin (6,50%w/w) content and luteolin (0,50%w/w) content by HPLC with DAD detector.

Trust as a mechanism to increase individual “docility”: A theoretical approach

In order to reach their goals organizations need to establish relationships with other organizations, and cooperate with them. The success of such initiatives relies on the exchange of suggestions, advice, and information. This behavior has been labeled as ’docile’ (word borrowed from the work of the late Herbert Simon). This paper elaborates on determinants of docile behavior and introduces a model that is based on trust mechanisms. The theoretical model supports the claim that trust enhances the likelihood that docile behavior appears. The study also shows that organizations may benefit from higher levels of docility that increase the chances of success when cooperation and external partnerships are established.

Flower visits, nesting and nest defence behaviour of stingless bees (Apidae: Meliponini): suitability of the bee species for meliponiculture in the Argentinean Chaco region

Four bionomical features are here described for the seven stingless bees that inhabit a new meliponine beekeeping area: the Argentinean Chaco region. The most commonly visited plants were of herbaceous habits, predominantly had flowers of white/creamy to yellowish colour, with small-sized flowers and were of moderate mass-flowering degree. Lestrimelitta chacoana was the only robber species. The most commonly found nesting substrate was large living tree trunks, and most nests were found at the base of the trunks. Sometimes, nesting substrates and floral resources were provided by the same woody plant. Cryptic small- to medium-sized cerumen tube-like unornamented nest entrances were the most commonly found. Nest defence included aggressive (Scaptotrigona jujuyensis) and docile behaviour; the latter was classified into timid and non-timid. A key to identify the Meliponini fauna of this region is provided. The regional pattern of bionomical features seems to be associated with subtropical climate conditions. The majority of these bee species are suitable for Meliponiculture in the Chaco region.

Ovine Models for Chronic Heart Failure

Testing and optimizing of surgical therapies for chronic heart failure (CHF) requires large animal models. CHF has been induced in several large animal species. Sheep have modest body mass increase and demonstrate docile behavior and are therefore a preferred species in research on surgical therapies for CHF METHODS: A literature search for existing ovine CHF models was performed, using search terms "sheep" and "heart failure". Relevant secondary references were traced. Rapid ventricular pacing produces rapid-onset CHFE Its severity ranges from moderate left ventricular failure to severe biventricular failure, depending on length and frequency of pacing. Its counterpart in human CHF is tachycardia-induced HF since it is reversible upon cessation of pacing. Myocardial damage models include CHF induced by cardiototoxic drugs and ischemia. Ischemia-based models include coronary microembolization, occlusion and ischemia/reperfusion models. The microembolization model is relevant to diabetic cardiomyopathy. Coronary occlusion models exhibit variable functional impairment, some with aneurysm formation, and some with mitral valve regurgitation, depending on occlusion localization. They are relevant to CHF following non-reperfused myocardial infarction. Coronary occlusion/reperfusion models are relevant to the occurrence of human ãã despite coronary artery recanalization. Pressure overload of left and right ventricle is induced by aortic and pulmonary artery banding, respectively. Hypertrophy precedes CHF as in patients with valve stenosis and hypertension. Volume overload is induced by valve damage or shunt creation. Atrioventricular valve regurgitation is the most important clinical counterpart. Several ovine CHF models exist. Since they exhibit important cardiac pathology differences, the choice of model should be based on the specific experimental question.

Violence and Xenophobia as Means of Social Control in Times of Collapse: The Soviet Occupation of Post‐War Germany, 1945–1947*

This article explores an overlooked aspect of the Soviet occupation of post‐war Germany, namely, the influence of wartime violence on German behavioural patterns during the post‐war period. Whilst many historians have noted that violent Soviet conduct in Germany merely encouraged the intensification of existing anti‐Soviet attitudes therein, few have attempted to thoroughly investigate its influence on German behaviour. The conclusions made by those few historians who have done so are unsupported by the Soviet archival evidence drawn upon in the article. Using this evidence, the article highlights the tentative links between the violent repression of an occupation force and the muted responses of its subjects. It concludes that the nature of the repression and of the broader occupation landscape in which it developed, was integral in ensuring that the characteristically docile behaviour of the German population toward the Soviet occupier continued unabated throughout much of the occupation period.

Convent Life in Colonial Mexico: A Tale of Two Communities (review)

Reviewed by: Convent Life in Colonial Mexico: A Tale of Two Communities Kristine Ibsen Convent Life in Colonial Mexico: A Tale of Two Communities. By Stephanie L.Kirk. (Gainesville: University Press of Florida. 2007. Pp. x, 241. $59.95 cloth-bound. ISBN 978-0-8130-3030-2.) In this latest contribution to Latin American colonial studies from the perspective of gender, Stephanie L. Kirk proposes to examine how women religious in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Mexico created "alternate"communities through alliances, friendships, and intellectual exchange. To understand how these women challenged restrictions in their writing, she suggests, the texts through which such boundaries were defined and sustained must also be considered. Thus Kirk structures her book as a "tale of two communities": on the one hand, that found in the textual traces of nuns' daily lives, and, on the other, the idealized community by which ecclesiastical and secular authorities sought to manage women's bodies and minds. By extolling the virtues of solitary meditation and self-discipline, Kirk argues, the community imagined in the pages of hagiographies and conduct manuals was "not a community at all" (p. 12). The first chapter begins with a close reading of two tracts by Antonio Núñez de Miranda, best known today for his role as Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz's confessor. In her analysis of the Cartilla de la doctrina religiosa (1698), Kirk is especially attentive to the text's staged dialogue, demonstrating how the [End Page 617] priest's narrative authority is complemented by the questions of imaginary novices who model docile behavior for the female reader. The second part of this chapter considers Núñez's Plática doctrinal (1697) from the perspective of a baroque treatment of death and vanitas, offering an intriguing reading of the image of the professed nun's body as dead to the world as a strategy for the containment of women. In the chapter that follows, Kirk turns to inquisition archives to recover the story of a nun accused of an inappropriate relationship (mala amistad) with a servant girl, which she associates with the considerable literature in which "private"friendships (amistades particulares) were discouraged as antithetical to the professed nun's vow to shun all earthly affection. This attempt to discourage contact fits in nicely with the book's discussion of community, even if the reading of the homoerotic dimensions of such friendships may be overstated. The next chapter examines texts related to the eighteenth-century convent reforms known as vida común. These reforms were not merely a form of curtailing luxury. More specifically, they may be seen as an attempt to further restrict women's contact with the world outside and to contain the economic independence enjoyed by many elite women religious. Kirk studies official documents and archival material to demonstrate how some convents bypassed the local religious authorities to take their concerns directly to the viceroy and eventually the king, and her discussion of the rhetorical strategies employed in such exchanges is fascinating. In her final chapter, Kirk brings the book full circle with two works associated with Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, regarding the exchange and circulation of female-authored texts among women religious as an "intellectual community," or more hyperbolically, as a "utopian quest" that circumvented the "usual channels of . . . communication controlled by men" (p. 144). Kirk's discussion of an unusual poetic relation between Sor Juana and a literary circle of Portuguese nuns is worthy of note, although it would have been helpful to balance her reading of the poems' same-sex eroticism with a more detailed consideration of their use of rhetorical convention. In short, Convent Life in Colonial Mexico: A Tale of Two Communities is an interesting and ambitious study of the discourses associated with convent life in Mexico. Kristine Ibsen University of Notre Dame Copyright © 2008 The Catholic University of America Press

Anatomie des émotions

The study of emotion had been relegated to the fringes of neuroscience until quite recently because it was too subjective and irrational for the intellectual stiffness of modern science. Since about thirty years, the studies relating to emotions and underlying neural mechanisms have considerably multiplied utilising behavioural paradigms with normal subjects, clinical evaluation of patients suffering from neurological or psychic disorders, observations of patients with definite brain lesions and finally, using the most advanced and noninvasive technology available to capture revealing images of the living brain responding to emotions: functional brain neuroimaging. In this paper we describe the famous historical contributions to the comprehension of the links between brain and emotions. The oldest experimental demonstration of these links was carried out at the beginning of the twentieth century by Cannon and Bard who showed that the surgical ablation of a cat's neocortex induced non-motivated aggressive behaviour called sham rage. Kluver and Bucy described behavioural modifications generated by the ablation of portions of temporal lobes monkeys. After lobectomy, animals developed a submissive and docile behaviour and hypersexuality as well as hyperorality. The case of Phineas Gage first described by Dr Harlow is also very famous as first description of personality changes after prefrontal damage. These case studies carried out on man and animal lead to the establishing of assumptions on the anatomical basis of emotions. Researchers such as Papez, Broca, MacLean and more recently Mesulam have successively contributed to the construction of the current neuroanatomical models of emotions where the cortico-limbic system constitutes the essential substrate of the emotional processes. The main anatomical structures of this system, namely the amygdala, the septal area, the hypothalamus and the prefrontal regions are then reviewed. The most relevant data supported the implication of the septal area being involved pleasure and the amygdala fear-related emotion. As interface between cognition and emotion, the prefrontal area has a more complex role, particularly the regulation of social emotions. The contribution of both cerebral hemispheres is also discussed with the classical opposition happy left hemisphere and pessimistic right hemisphere. The final paragraphs provide recent data on the relations between emotional states and specific patterns of regional brain activity seized with the help of the various functional neuroimaging techniques. These techniques, which allow to study the emotional processes healthy subjects in vivo, challenge the hypothesis that specific brain regions have strictly specialised functions for the generation of emotions (e.g. the critical role of amygdala fear-related processing). It is indeed likely that separate brain regions are involved different aspects of emotion (e.g. the amygdala may not exclusively respond to threaten stimuli but to any emotionally relevant stimuli, regardless of valence). As other domains of neurocognition we are moving from a localisationist perspective toward approaches where the mental functions are underlain by distributed neural networks. Although our knowledge of emotional mechanisms and their anatomical substrates is still fragmentary, the study of emotions constitutes a promising field of investigation.

Folliculogenesis, onset of puberty and fecundity of mink ( [formula omitted]) selectively bred for docility or aggressiveness

It has been suggested that selective breeding of animals for docile behavior is correlated with early onset of puberty and improved fertility. We wished to test the hypothesis that mink bred for docility would show earlier onset of puberty and greater fecundity than mink bred for aggressiveness. We used farm-raised, 7-mo-old mink females that had been selectively bred for 7 to 10 generations on the basis of behavior towards humans. Onset of puberty was estimated once (between 15 and 20 December) by vaginal smears and was said to start with preponderance of cornified epithelial cells in the cytological specimen. Fecundity was measured by litter size and rate of folliculogenesis, with and without hCG stimulation, by histomorphometric examination of ovaries and uteri. A total of 43 100 (43%) docile females achieved proestrus and estrus as compared to 16 136 (12%) of the aggressive ones. Overall pregnancy rate, survival to 5 d after whelping and litter size did not differ between the docile and aggressive females. Docile females showed significantly higher numbers (P<0.05 and <0.001) of growing, maturing and atretic follicles than the aggressive ones, however the latter showed a highly significant (P<0.001) folliculogenic response to hCG. The response of the ovary of aggressive females to hCG is particularly dramatic because in most aggressive females the ovaries contained none or only few follicles of any kind. The inhibition of folliculogenesis in aggressive mink is similar to that reported in Silverblue and Sapphire mink homozygous for the Stuart factor. The paradoxical response to hCG may be an indication that selective breeding for aggression may be correlated with the disturbance at the early stages of folliculogenesis which creates a deficiency of follicles that are sensitive to LH-type stimulation.

A Mechanism for Social Selection and Successful Altruism

Within the framework of neo-Darwinism, with its focus on fitness, it has been hard to account for altruism behavior that reduces the fitness of the altruist but increases average fitness in society. Many population biologists argue that, except for altruism to close relatives, human behavior that appears to be altruistic amounts to reciprocal altruism, behavior undertaken with an expectation of reciprocation, hence incurring no net cost to fitness. Herein is proposed a simple and robust mechanism, based on human docility and bounded rationality that can account for the evolutionary success of genuinely altruistic behavior. Because docility-receptivity to social influence-contributes greatly to fitness in the human species, it will be positively selected. As a consequence, society can impose a "tax" on the gross benefits gained by individuals from docility by inducing docile individuals to engage in altruistic behaviors. Limits on rationality in the face of environmental complexity prevent the individual from avoiding this "tax." An upper bound is imposed on altruism by the condition that there must remain a net fitness advantage for docile behavior after the cost to the individual of altruism has been deducted.

Patients' and Caregivers' Adaptation to Improvement in Schizophrenia

Treatment of poorly functioning schizophrenic patients with antidepressant medication may lead to a relatively rapid increase in their level of activity, autonomy, and assertiveness. Caregivers who had been accustomed to the patients' more blunted affect and docile behavior may perceive this change as an increase in hostility. Patients who do not know how to express anger and other strong feelings appropriately may also find changes in their level of assertiveness to be stressful. The authors illustrate these problems with case examples and suggest that psychoeducation, regular contact with the treatment team, and training in communication can help both patients and caregivers adjust to the patients' improved condition.