DNA Double-strand Break Repair Research Articles

A Site-Specific Click Chemistry Approach to Di-Ubiquitylate H1 Variants Reveals Position-Dependent Stimulation of the DNA Repair Protein RNF168.

Ubiquitylation of histone H2A at lysines 13 and 15 by the E3 ligase RNF168 plays a key role in orchestrating DNA double-strand break (DSB) repair, which is often deregulated in cancer. RNF168 activity is triggered by DSB signaling cascades, reportedly through K63-linked poly-ubiquitylation of linker histone H1. However, direct experimental evidence of this mechanism has been elusive, primarily due to the lack of methods to specifically poly-ubiquitylate H1. Here, we developed a versatile click chemistry approach to covalently link multiple proteins in a site-specific, controlled, and stepwise manner. Applying this method, we synthesized H1 constructs bearing triazole-linked di-ubiquitin on four DNA repair-associated ubiquitylation hotspots (H1KxUb2, at K17, 46, 64 and 96). Integrated into nucleosome arrays, the H1KxUb2 variants stimulated H2A ubiquitylation by RNF168 in a position-dependent manner, with H1K17Ub2 showing the strongest RNF168 activation effect. Moreover, we show that di-ubiquitin binding is the driving force underlying RNF168 recruitment, introducing H1K17Ub2 into living U-2 OS cells. Together, our results support the hypothesis of poly-ubiquitylated H1 guiding RNF168 recruitment to DSB sites. Moreover, we demonstrate how the streamlined synthesis of H1KxUb2 variants enables mechanistic studies into RNF168 regulation, with potential implications for its inhibition in susceptible cancers.

Effect of PI3-kinase inhibitors on DNA double strand break repair pathways: observations using a site specific DSB induction system.

We established two types of site-specific DNA double strand breaks (DSB) induction systems to elucidate factors which affect the efficiency or quality of DSB repair. For mutation assays, a site specific DSB was generated by the transient expression of a zinc finger nuclease which targets the human HPRT1 gene. A cell line in which time and site specific DSBs can be generated in a HR reporter construct was used for homology-directed repair (HR) analysis. By using these two systems, we investigated the effects of PI3-kinase inhibitors on the efficiency and quality of DSB repair. Ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM) kinase inhibition resulted a decrease in mutant frequency and a slight increase in deletion-type mutations accompanied by microhomology. Furthermore, the HR frequency increased significantly when ATM kinase activity was inhibited. Thus, ATM kinase activity might be involved in the suppression of DSB end resection, and this may promote DSB repair through canonical non-homologous end joining.

BCAS2 and hnRNPH1 orchestrate alternative splicing for DNA double-strand break repair and synapsis in meiotic prophase I

Understanding the intricacies of homologous recombination during meiosis is crucial for reproductive biology. However, the role of alternative splicing (AS) in DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) repair and synapsis remains elusive. In this study, we investigated the impact of conditional knockout (cKO) of the splicing factor gene Bcas2 in mouse germ cells, revealing impaired DSBs repair and synapsis, resulting in non-obstructive azoospermia (NOA). Employing crosslinking immunoprecipitation and sequencing (CLIP-seq), we globally mapped BCAS2 binding sites in the testis, uncovering its predominant association with 5’ splice sites (5’SS) of introns and a preference for GA-rich regions. Notably, BCAS2 exhibited direct binding and regulatory influence on Trp53bp1 (codes for 53BP1) and Six6os1 through AS, unveiling novel insights into DSBs repair and synapsis during meiotic prophase I. Furthermore, the interaction between BCAS2, hnRNPH1, and SRSF3 was discovered to orchestrate Trp53bp1 expression via AS, underscoring its role in meiotic prophase I DSBs repair. In summary, our findings delineate the indispensable role of BCAS2-mediated post-transcriptional regulation in DSBs repair and synapsis during male meiosis. This study provides a comprehensive framework for unraveling the molecular mechanisms governing the post-transcriptional network in male meiosis, contributing to the broader understanding of reproductive biology.

POLQ knockdown inhibits proliferation, migration, and invasion by inducing cell cycle arrest in colorectal cancer

BackgroundPolymerase θ (POLQ) is an error-prone translesion synthesis polymerase that participates in the repair of DNA double-strand breaks. Previous studies have reported that the level of POLQ expression is distinctly upregulated in colorectal cancer (CRC), but little attention has been given to its function and regulation of CRC progression. This study aimed to explore the specific function of POLQ in CRC.MethodsQuantitative real-time PCR and western blotting analysis were used to assess the transcription and translation levels of POLQ. Then, POLQ was stably silenced using small interfering RNA in SW480 and HCT116 cells. Afterwards, the function of POLQ in CRC cells was proven via Cell Counting Kit‑8, scratch wound healing, colony formation, and Boyden chamber assays. Furthermore, we investigated the effects of POLQ on the cell cycle signaling pathway that obtained from biological pathway enrichment analysis and further verified by activating the signaling pathway.ResultsThe results showed that POLQ was highly expressed in CRC tissues and cells and was associated with poor clinical outcomes of patients. Knockdown of POLQ significantly reduced the proliferation, migration and invasion of CRC cells. Additionally, POLQ knockdown markedly decreased the expression levels of MMP2 and MMP9, and blocked cell cycle progression by inhibiting the expression of G1/M and S/M phases proteins.ConclusionsPOLQ knockdown restrained the progression of CRC by blocking the cell cycle signaling pathway.

EZH1/2 plays critical roles in oocyte meiosis prophase I in mice

Backgroudabnormalities or defects in oocyte meiosis can result in decreased oocyte quality, reduced ovarian reserve, and female diseases. However, the mechanisms of oocyte meiosis remain largely unknown, especially epigenetic regulation. Here, we explored the role of EZH1/2 (histone methyltransferase of H3K27) in mouse oocyte meiosis by inhibiting its activity and deleting its gene.Resultswith embryonic ovary cultured in vitro, EZH1/2 was demonstrated to be essential for oocyte development during meiosis prophase I in mice. Activity inhibition or gene knockout of EZH1/2 resulted in cell apoptosis and a reduction in oocyte numbers within embryonic ovaries. By observing the expression of some meiotic marker protein (γ-H2AX, diplotene stage marker MSY2 and synapsis complex protein SCP1), we found that function deficiency of EZH1/2 resulted in failure of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) repair and break of meiotic progression in fetal mouse ovaries. Moreover, Ezh1/2 deficiency led to the suppression of ATM (Ataxia Telangiectasia Mutated kinase) phosphorylation and a decrease in the expression of key DNA repair proteins Hormad1, Mre11, Rad50, and Nbs1 in fetal mouse ovaries, underscoring the enzyme’s pivotal role in initiating DNA repair. RNA-seq analysis revealed that Ezh1/2-deletion induced abnormal expression of multiple genes involved into several function of oocyte development in embryonic ovaries. Knockout of Ezh1/2 in ovaries also affected the levels of H3K9me3 and H4K20me2, as well as the expression of their target genes L3mbtl4 and Fbxo44.Conclusionsour study demonstrated that EZH1/2 plays a role in the DSBs repair in oocyte meiosis prophase I via multiple mechanisms and offers new insights into the physiological regulatory role of histone modification in fetal oocyte guardianship and female fertility.

PARylation of GCN5 by PARP1 mediates its recruitment to DSBs and facilitates both HR and NHEJ Repair

Efficient DNA double strand break (DSB) repair is necessary for genomic stability and determines efficacy of DNA damaging cancer therapeutics. Spatiotemporal dynamics and post-translational modifications of repair proteins at DSBs dictate repair efficacy. Here, we identified a non-canonical function of GCN5 in regulating both HR and NHEJ repair post genotoxic stress. Mechanistically, genotoxic stress induced GCN5 recruitment to DSBs. GCN5 PARylation by PARP1 was essential for its recruitment, acetyltransferase activity and DSB repair function. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC–MS) identified DNA-PKcs as part of GCN5 interactome. In-vitro acetyltransferase assays revealed that GCN5 acetylates DNA-PKcs at K3241 residue, a prerequisite for DNA-PKcs S2056 phosphorylation and DSB recruitment. Alongside, ChIP-qPCR revealed GCN5 mediates transcription of PRKDC via H3K27Ac acetylation in its promoter region (− 710 to − 554). Genetic perturbation of GCN5 also decreased CHEK1, NBN1, TP53BP1, POL-L transcription and abrogated ATM, BRCA1 activation. Accordingly, GCN5 loss led to persistent ɣ-H2AX foci formation, compromised in-vivo HR-NHEJ and caused GBM radio-sensitization. Importantly, PARP1 inhibition phenocopied GCN5 loss. Together, this study identifies an untraversed DSB repair function of GCN5 and provides mechanistic insights into transcriptional as well as post-translational regulation of pivotal HR-NHEJ factors. Alongside, it highlights the translational importance of PARP1-GCN5 axis in mediating GBM radio-resistance.

The Role of Microhomology-Mediated End Joining (MMEJ) at Dysfunctional Telomeres.

DNA double-strand break (DSB) repair pathways are crucial for maintaining genome stability and cell viability. However, these pathways can mistakenly recognize chromosome ends as DNA breaks, leading to adverse outcomes such as telomere fusions and malignant transformation. The shelterin complex protects telomeres from activation of DNA repair pathways by inhibiting nonhomologous end joining (NHEJ), homologous recombination (HR), and microhomology-mediated end joining (MMEJ). The focus of this paper is on MMEJ, an error-prone DSB repair pathway characterized by short insertions and deletions flanked by sequence homology. MMEJ is critical in mediating telomere fusions in cells lacking the shelterin complex and at critically short telomeres. Furthermore, studies suggest that MMEJ is the preferred pathway for repairing intratelomeric DSBs and facilitates escape from telomere crisis. Targeting MMEJ to prevent telomere fusions in hematologic malignancies is of potential therapeutic value.

TPX2 serves as a novel target for expanding the utility of PARPi in pancreatic cancer through conferring synthetic lethality

BackgroundPARP inhibitors (PARPi) have been licensed for the maintenance therapy of patients with metastatic pancreatic cancer carrying pathogenic germline BRCA1/2 mutations. However, mutations in BRCA1/2 are notably rare in pancreatic...

Quercetin exhibits cytotoxicity in cancer cells by inducing two-ended DNA double-strand breaks.

Quercetin, a flavonoid, is involved in the induction of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs), in addition to its antioxidant properties. Although DNA topoisomerase II (Top2) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) have been suggested as possible mechanisms through which quercetin induces DSBs, the exact mechanism remains unclear. In this study, we examined the mechanism of DSB induction by quercetin and its repair using HeLa cells and gene-knockout cell lines generated from human Nalm-6cells. Immunofluorescence staining for γH2AX, a DSB marker, and analysis of the frequency of random integration of foreign DNA, which correlates with the number of DSBs and DSB repair pathways, indicated that quercetin induces DSBs in a concentration-dependent manner. The sensitivity assay suggested that the factor involved in quercetin-induced DSBs was not Top2. However, ROS was found to accumulate transiently in quercetin-treated HeLa cells. Furthermore, the addition of ascorbic acid increased the survival of quercetin-treated HeLa cells, suggesting that quercetin induces a transient accumulation of ROS, which in turn induces DSBs. The resulting DSBs were repaired primarily by non-homologous end-joining and homologous recombination, similar to X-ray-induced DSBs. Taken together, quercetin, used as a radiomimetic agent, has the potential to produce effects equivalent to those of an X ray-dose at a relatively low risk.

Senataxin Attenuates DNA Damage Response Activation and Suppresses Senescence

Oxidative stress, driven by reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), induces DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) that compromise genomic integrity. The DNA Damage Response (DDR), primarily mediated by ATM and ATR kinases, is crucial for recognizing and repairing DSBs. Senataxin (SETX), a DNA/RNA helicase, is critical in resolving R-loops, with mutations in SETX associated with neurodegenerative diseases. This study uncovers a novel function of senataxin in modulating DDR and its impact on cellular senescence. Senataxin is shown to be crucial not only for DSB repair but also for determining cell fate under oxidative stress. SETX knockout cells show impaired DSB repair and prolonged ATM/ATR signaling detected by Western blotting, leading to increased senescence, as indicated by elevated β-galactosidase activity following H2O2 exposure and I-PpoI-induced DSBs. Wild-type cells exhibit higher apoptosis levels compared to SETX knockout cells under H2O2 treatment, suggesting that senataxin promotes apoptosis over senescence in oxidative stress. This indicates that senataxin plays a protective role against the accumulation of senescent cells, potentially mitigating age-related cellular decline and neurodegenerative disease progression. These findings highlight senataxin as a critical mediator in DDR pathways and a potential therapeutic target for conditions where cellular senescence contributes to disease pathology.

Cohesin complex oligomerization maintains end-tethering at DNA double-strand breaks.

DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) must be repaired to ensure genome stability. Crucially, DSB-ends must be kept together for timely repair. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, two pathways mediate DSB end-tethering. One employs the Mre11-Rad50-Xrs2 (MRX) complex to physically bridge DSB-ends. Another requires the conversion of DSB-ends into single-strand DNA (ssDNA) by Exo1, but the bridging proteins are unknown. We uncover that cohesin, its loader and Smc5/6 act with Exo1 to tether DSB-ends. Remarkably, cohesin specifically impaired in oligomerization fails to tether DSB-ends, revealing a function for cohesin oligomerization. In addition to the known importance of sister chromatid cohesion, microscopy-based microfluidic experiments unveil a role for cohesin in repair by ensuring DSB end-tethering. Altogether, our findings demonstrate that oligomerization of cohesin prevents DSB end-separation and promotes DSB repair, revealing a previously undescribed mode of action and role for cohesin in safeguarding genome integrity.

Gold nanoparticles cause radiosensitization in 4T1 cells by inhibiting DNA double strand break repair: Single cell comparisons of DSB formation and γH2AX expression.

Metal nanoparticles sensitize cancers to radiotherapy however their mechanisms of action are complex. The conceptual inspiration arose from theories of physical dose deposition but various chemical and biological factors have also been identified. Interpretation of data has been limited by challenges in measuring true DNA damage compared to DNA damage repair factors. Here, we applied a new assay, STRIDE, for the first time to measure DNA double strand breaks (DSBs) in 4T1 cells as a model of triple negative breast cancer exposed to gold nanoparticles and radiation, and compared this to the common γH2AX assay for DSB repair. The STRIDE assay showed no increase in DSB detection 15 mins after irradiation for cells containing nanoparticles compared to cells without. Gold nanoparticles led to prolonged detection of DSBs after irradiation and delayed the DSB repair. The data show no evidence of increased radiation dose deposition with nanoparticles, but rather enhanced radiobiological effects resulting from nanoparticles which includes disruption of the recruitment of essential DDR machinery, thereby impairing DNA repair processes.

Tissue microarray analyses of the essential DNA repair factors ATM, DNA-PKcs and Ku80 in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma

BackgroundHead and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) negative for Human Papillomavirus (HPV) has remained a difficult to treat entity, whereas tumors positive for HPV are characterized by radiosensitivity and favorable patient outcome. On the cellular level, radiosensitivity is largely governed by the tumor cells` ability to repair radiation-induced DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs), but no biomarker is established that could guide clinical decision making. Therefore, we tested the impact of the expression levels of ATM, the central kinase of the DNA damage response as well as DNA-PKcs and Ku80, two major factors in the main DSB repair pathway non-homologous end joining (NHEJ).MethodsA tissue microarray of a single center HNSCC cohort was stained for ATM, DNA-PKcs and Ku80 and the expression scored based on staining intensity and the percentages of tumor cells stained. Scores were correlated with clinicopathological parameters and survival.ResultsSamples from 427 HNSCC patients yielded interpretable stainings and were scored following an established algorithm. The majority of tumors showed strong expression of both NHEJ factors, whereas the expression of ATM varied more. The expression scores of ATM and DNA-PKcs were not associated with patient survival. For HPV-negative HNSCC, the minority of tumors without strong Ku80 expression trended towards superior survival when treatment included radiotherapy. Focusing stronger on staining intensity to define the subgroup with lowest and therefore potentially insufficient expression levels in the HPV-negative subgroup, we observed significantly better overall survival for patients treated with radiotherapy but not with surgery alone.ConclusionsOur data suggest that HPV-negative HNSCC with particularly low Ku80 expression represent a highly radiosensitive subpopulation. Confirmation in independent cohorts is required.

From Zebrafish To Humans: In Silico Comparative Study of RAD50 Sequences

DNA damage, particularly the occurrence of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs), presents a significant hazard to the integrity and viability of cells. Improper repair of DSBs can result in chromosomal alterations, oncogenic changes, or cell demise. The MRE11-RAD50-NBS1 (MRN) complex plays a crucial role in DNA repair and signaling under the Ataxia Telangiectasia Mutated (ATM) kinase regulation. In this study, we employed comprehensive computational techniques to analyze the structure of RAD50 in Danio rerio (Zebrafish), utilized as a model organism. Additionally, we conducted in silico assessments of RAD50 from both Zebrafish and humans, comparing their characteristics. The substantial sequence resemblance between DrRAD50 and HsRAD50 suggests that DrRAD50 could potentially serve as a valuable model for HsRAD50. However, it is important to acknowledge that sequence similarity alone does not necessarily imply functional equivalence. Further functional studies are needed to confirm the extent of their functional similarities. By examining the secondary and tertiary protein structures of RAD50, we observed a notable likeness between Zebrafish and Human RAD50 proteins. In silico analysis demonstrated that the sequence of RAD50 in zebrafish shares 70% similarity with the human RAD50 protein.

RAD50 Deficiency and Its Effects on Zebrafish Embryonic Development and DNA Repair Mechanisms

The MRE11-RAD50-NBS1 (MRN) complex is essential in detecting, signaling, and repairing DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs), thus maintaining genomic integrity. Mutations in RAD50 are linked to severe conditions such as microcephaly, mental retardation, and growth retardation in humans. This study investigates the developmental impact of RAD50 protein disruption in zebrafish embryos. Zebrafish embryos were treated with MIRIN (35 µM) to inhibit RAD50 and subsequently exposed to gamma-ray irradiation (15 Gy) to analyze the role of RAD50 in managing DNA damage during embryogenesis. Time-point analysis indicated that inhibiting RAD50 and ATM proteins during early embryonic stages (at 1 hpf) leads to increased embryonic mortality and abnormalities. These adverse effects were exacerbated by irradiation, underscoring the critical role of RAD50 in DNA DSB repair. The study concludes that RAD50 deficiencies can lead to embryonic lethality and human deformities due to the inability of tissues to repair DNA DSBs effectively.

Non-classical action of Ku70 promotes Treg suppressive function through a FOXP3-dependent mechanism in lung adenocarcinoma.

Ku70, a DNA repair protein, binds to the damaged DNA ends and orchestrates the recruitment of other proteins to facilitate repair of DNA double-strand breaks. Besides its essential role in DNA repair, several studies have highlighted non-classical functions of Ku70 in cellular processes. However, its function in immune homeostasis and anti-tumor immunity remains unknown. Here, we discovered a marked association between elevated Ku70 expression and unfavorable prognosis in lung adenocarcinoma, focusing specifically on increased Ku70 levels in tumor-infiltrated Treg cells. Using a lung-colonizing tumor model of in mice with Treg-specific Ku70 deficiency, we demonstrated that deletion of Ku70 in Treg cells led to a stronger anti-tumor response and slower tumor growth due to impaired immune-suppressive capacity of Treg cells. Furthermore, we confirmed that Ku70 played a critical role in sustaining the suppressive function of human Treg cells. We found that Ku70 bound to FOXP3 and occupied FOXP3-bound genomic sites to support its transcriptional activities. These findings not only unveil a non-homologous end joining (NHEJ)-independent role of Ku70 crucial for Treg suppressive function, but also underscore the potential of targeting Ku70 as an effective strategy in cancer therapy, aiming to both restrain cancer cells and enhance pulmonary anti-tumor immunity.

Tetrameric INTS6-SOSS1 complex facilitates DNA:RNA hybrid autoregulation at double-strand breaks.

DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) represent a lethal form of DNA damage that can trigger cell death or initiate oncogenesis. The activity of RNA polymerase II (RNAPII) at the break site is required for efficient DSB repair. However, the regulatory mechanisms governing the transcription cycle at DSBs are not well understood. Here, we show that Integrator complex subunit 6 (INTS6) associates with the heterotrimeric sensor of ssDNA (SOSS1) complex (comprising INTS3, INIP and hSSB1) to form the tetrameric SOSS1 complex. INTS6 binds to DNA:RNA hybrids and promotes Protein Phosphatase 2A (PP2A) recruitment to DSBs, facilitating the dephosphorylation of RNAPII. Furthermore, INTS6 prevents the accumulation of damage-associated RNA transcripts (DARTs)and the stabilization of DNA:RNA hybrids at DSB sites. INTS6 interacts with and promotes the recruitment of senataxin(SETX) to DSBs, facilitating the resolution of DNA:RNA hybrids/R-loops. Our results underscore the significance of the tetrameric SOSS1 complex in the autoregulation of DNA:RNA hybrids andefficient DNA repair.

Endogenous neuronal DNA double-strand breaks are not sufficient to drive brain aging and neurodegeneration.

Loss of genomic information due to the accumulation of somatic DNA damage has been implicated in aging and neurodegeneration 1-3 . Somatic mutations in human neurons increase with age 4 , but it is unclear whether this is a cause or a consequence of brain aging. Here, we clarify the role of endogenous, neuronal DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) in brain aging and neurodegeneration by generating mice with post-developmental inactivation of the classical non-homologous end-joining (C-NHEJ) core factor Xrcc4 in forebrain neurons. Xrcc4 is critical for the ligation step of C-NHEJ and has no known function outside of DSB repair 5,6 . We find that, unlike their wild-type counterparts, C-NHEJ-deficient neurons accumulate high levels of DSB foci with age, indicating that neurons undergo frequent DSBs that are typically efficiently repaired by C-NHEJ across their lifespan. Genome-wide mapping reveals that endogenous neuronal DSBs preferentially occur in promoter regions and other genic features. Analysis of 3-D genome organization shows intra-chromosomal clustering and loop extrusion of neuronal DSB regions. Strikingly, however, DSB accumulation caused by loss of C-NHEJ induces only minor epigenetic alterations and does not significantly affect gene expression, 3-D genome organization, or mutational outcomes at neuronal DSBs. Despite extensive aging-associated accumulation of neuronal DSBs, mice with neuronal Xrcc4 inactivation do not show neurodegeneration, neuroinflammation, reduced lifespan, or impaired memory and learning behavior. We conclude that the formation of spontaneous neuronal DSBs caused by normal cellular processes is insufficient to cause brain aging and neurodegeneration, even in the absence of C-NHEJ, the principal neuronal DSB repair pathway.

NBS1 dePARylation by NUDT16 is critical for DNA double-strand break repair.

NBS1, a protein linked to the autosomal recessive disorder Nijmegen breakage syndrome, plays an essential role in the DNA damage response and DNA repair. Despite its importance, the mechanisms regulating NBS1 and the impact of this regulation on DNA repair processes remain obscure. In this study, we discovered a new post-translational modification of NBS1, ADP-ribosylation. This modification can be removed by the NUDT16 hydrolase. The loss of NUDT16 results in a reduction of NBS1 protein levels due to NBS1 PARylation-dependent ubiquitination and degradation, which is mediated by the PAR-binding E3 ubiquitin ligase, RNF146. Importantly, ADP-ribosylation of NBS1 is crucial for its localization at DSBs and its involvement in homologous recombination (HR) repair. Additionally, the NUDT16-NBS1 interaction is regulated in response to DNA damage, providing further rationale for NBS1 regulation by NUDT16 hydrolase. In summary, our study unveils the critical role of NUDT16 in governing both the stability of NBS1 and recruitment of NBS1 to DNA double-strand breaks, providing novel insights into the regulation of NBS1 in the HR repair pathway.

NF-κB in Alzheimer's Disease: Friend or Foe? Opposite Functions in Neurons and Glial Cells.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a devasting neurodegenerative disease afflicting mainly glutamatergic neurons together with a massive neuroinflammation mediated by the transcription factor NF-κB. A 65%-plus increase in Alzheimer's patients by 2050 might be a major threat to society. Hallmarks of AD are neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) composed of hyperphosphorylated tau and amyloid beta (Aβ) plaques. Here, we review the potential involvement of transcription factor NF-κB by hereditary mutations of the tumor necrosis factor pathway in AD patients. One of the greatest genetic risk factors is APOE4. Recently, it was shown that the APOE4 allele functions as a null allele in human astrocytes not repressing NF-κB anymore. Moreover, NF-κB seems to be involved in the repair of DNA double-strand breaks during healthy learning and memory, a function blunted in AD. NF-κB could be a friend to healthy neurons by repressing apoptosis and necroptosis. But a loss of neuronal NF-κB and activation of glial NF-κB in AD makes it a foe of neuronal survival. Hopeful therapies include TNFR2 receptor bodies relieving the activation of glial NF-κB by TNFα.