DNA Adducts In Target Tissues Research Articles

Cancer risk assessment for 1,3-butadiene: Data integration opportunities

The US Environmental Protection Agency recently released its new guidelines for carcinogen risk assessment together with supplemental guidance for assessing susceptibility from early-life exposure to carcinogens. In particular, these guidelines encourage the use of mechanistic data in support of dose-response characterization at doses below those at which an increase in tumor frequency over background levels might be detected. In this context of the utility of mechanistic data for human cancer risk assessment, the International Life Sciences Institute (ILSI) has developed a human relevance framework (HRF) that can be used to assess the plausibility of a mode of action (MoA) described for animal models operating in humans. The MoA is described as a sequence of key events and processes that result in an adverse outcome. A key event is a measurable precursor step that is in itself a necessary element of the MoA or is a bioindicator for such an element. A number of cellular and molecular perturbations have been identified as key events whereby DNA-reactive chemicals can produce tumors. These include DNA adducts in target tissues, gene mutations and/or chromosomal alterations in target tissues and enhanced cell proliferation in target tissues. This type of data integration approach to quantitative cancer risk assessment can be applied to 1,3-butadiene, for example, using data on biomarkers in exposed Czech workers [1]. For this study, an extensive range of biomarkers of exposure and response was assessed, including: polymorphisms in metabolizing enzymes; urinary concentrations of several metabolites of 1,3-butadiene; hemoglobin adducts; HPRT mutations in T-lymphocytes; chromosomal aberrations by FISH and conventional staining procedures; sister chromatid exchanges. Exposure levels were monitored in a comprehensive fashion. For risk assessment purposes, these data need to be considered in the context of how they inform the MoA for leukemia, the tumor type reported to be increased in synthetic rubber workers exposed to 1,3-butadiene. Also, for the HRF it is necessary to establish key events for a MoA in rodents for the induction of tumors by 1,3-butadiene. There is clearly a species difference in sensitivity to tumor induction, with mice being much more sensitive than rats; key events need to explain this difference. For butadiene, the MoA is DNA-reactivity and subsequent mutagenicity and so following the EPA's cancer guidelines, a linear extrapolation is used from the point of departure (POD), unless additional data support a non-linear extrapolation. For the present case, the human bioindicator data are not informative as far as dose-response characterization is concerned. Mouse chromosome aberration data for in vivo exposures might be used for establishing a POD, with linear extrapolation from this POD. The available cytogenetic data from rodent studies appear to be sufficiently extensive and consistent for this to be a viable approach. This approach of using MoA and key events to establish the human relevance can lead to the development of specific informative bioindicators of response that can be used as surrogates to predict the shape of the tumor dose response curve at low doses. Truly informative predictors of tumor responses should be able to provide estimates of human tumor frequencies at low, environmental exposures to 1,3-butadiene.

GSMT1 deletion modifies the levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-DNA adducts in human sperm

DNA adducts measured in tissues are promising markers for identifying damage in organs that could be a target for carcinogens. Polymorphisms in genes involved in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) metabolism have been shown to modify the levels of PAH–DNA adducts in target tissues. In order to study the role of metabolic gene polymorphisms on DNA-adduct formation in sperm, we determined the GSTM1 genotype in a group of men in whom PAH–DNA adducts in sperm had been previously measured by immunofluorescence. The mean level of adducts in sperm was significantly higher in subjects carrying the homozygous deletion variant of GSTM1 than in subjects with a functional GSTM1 (mean fluorescence staining intensity: 1.62 ± 0.62 versus 1.33 ± 0.55; p = 0.02). With respect to environmental factors, subjects who reported occupational exposure to PAHs and who carried the GSTM1 deletion had a significant increase in PAH–DNA adducts in sperm in comparison with subjects who were not exposed and had a functional GSTM1 (mean staining intensity: 1.83 ± 0.67 versus 1.30 ± 0.53; p = 0.05), although among GSTM1-null subjects there was no significant difference with or without occupational exposure. This study presents for the first time the effect of a common polymorphism in a gene that metabolizes PAHs on DNA-adduct levels in sperm.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: correlations between DNA adducts and ras oncogene mutations

This review describes a series of studies on the tumorigenic activities of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in various experimental animal model systems, their abilities to form PAH–DNA adducts in target tissues, and their abilities to mutate ras oncogenes in PAH-induced tumors. The review is limited to those PAHs that do not contain nitrogen, for which ras mutations have been detected in induced tumors, and for which some information is available about the structures of the DNA adducts induced in the target tissue. In general, PAHs that form DNA adducts at deoxyadenosine induce mutations at codon 61, whereas those PAHs that form DNA adducts at deoxyguanosine primarily induce mutations at codons 12 or 13. Those PAHs that induce adducts at both bases induce both types of mutations. These correlations provide evidence for the involvement of adduct-directed mutations in ras in the etiology of these tumors. The induced mutation spectra in ras may in fact point back to the identity of the type of adduct formed.

Chronic, topical exposure to benzo[a]pyrene induces relatively high steady-state levels of DNA adducts in target tissues and alters kinetics of adduct loss.

Carcinogen-DNA adduct measurements may become useful biomarkers of effective dose and/or early effect. However, validation of this biomarker is required at several levels to ensure that human exposure and response are accurately reflected. Important in this regard is an understanding of the relative biomarker levels in target and nontarget organs and the response of the biomarker under the chronic, low-dose conditions to which humans are exposed. We studied the differences between single and chronic topical application of benzo[a]pyrene (BAP) on the accumulation and removal of BAP-DNA adducts in skin, lung, and liver. Animals were treated with BAP at 10, 25, or 50 nMol topically once or twice per week for as long as 15 weeks. Animals were sacrificed either at 24, 48, or 72 hr after the last dose at 1 and 30 treatments, and after 24 hr for all other treatment groups. Adduct levels increased with increasing dose, but the slope of the dose-response was different in each organ. At low doses, accumulation was linear in skin and lung, but at high doses the adduct levels in the lung increased dramatically at the same time when the levels in the skin reached apparent steady state. In the liver adduct, levels were lower than in target tissues and apparent steady-state adduct levels were reached rapidly, the maxima being independent of dose, suggesting that activating metabolism was saturated in this organ. Removal of adducts from skin, the target organ, was more rapid following single treatment than with chronic exposure. This finding is consistent with earlier data, indicating that some areas of the genome are more resistant to repair. Thus, repeated exposure and repair cycles would be more likely to cause an increase in the proportion of carcinogen-DNA adducts in repair-resistant areas of the genome. These findings indicate that single-dose experiments may underestimate the potential for carcinogenicity for compounds that follow this pattern.

DNA adduct formation and tumorigenesis in mice during the chronic administration of 4-aminobiphenyl at multiple dose levels.

Recent studies have demonstrated the presence of DNA adducts from 4-aminobiphenyl (4-ABP) in the bladder cells of humans; however, the correlation between the concentration of these adducts and the tumorigenic response is not clear. To help elucidate this relationship, we have investigated DNA adduct formation in experimental animals continuously administered 4-ABP. Male and female BALB/c mice were treated for 28 days with 4-ABP. hydrochloride in their drinking water. DNA adducts in target tissues (liver of females and bladder of males) were identified and quantified by 32P-postlabeling analyses and radioimmunoassays. These results were compared to previously reported tumor incidences obtained from the lifetime administration of 4-ABP hydrochloride. The major adduct observed in both tissues was N-(deoxyguanosin-8-yl)-4-ABP. In the bladders of both sexes and the livers of female mice, adduct levels increased with dose at low doses, but saturation was observed at high doses. In the livers of males, the adduct levels were linearly correlated with dose throughout the entire dose range. A comparison between DNA adducts and tumorigenesis indicated a linear correlation between adduct levels and the incidence of liver tumors in female mice. In the bladders of male mice, however, the relationship was markedly nonlinear. These data suggest that adduct formation alone is insufficient for tumorigenesis in the bladder and that other factors such as cell proliferation are necessary for tumor production.

Significance of DNA adduct studies in animal models for cancer molecular dosimetry and risk assessment.

To elucidate the relationship between DNA adduct formation and tumorigenesis, a number of experiments have been conducted to measure DNA adducts in target tissues from experimental animals during continuous exposure to carcinogens. With aflatoxins, aromatic amines, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, tumor induction appears to be associated with the major DNA adduct detected, whereas with N-nitrosamines the response is normally correlated with minor forms of DNA damage. During continuous carcinogen administration, steady-state adduct concentrations are generally obtained in the target tissues, and there is often a linear correlation between the carcinogen concentration and the steady-state DNA adduct level. Exceptions exist when the mechanism of activation changes or with the onset of significant toxicity. Steady-state DNA adduct levels are often linearly related to the tumorigenic response. Carcinogen-induced cell proliferation occurs when significant deviations from linearity are observed. Because DNA adducts detected in humans are chemically identical to those found in experimental animals, DNA adduct data in animals may contribute to our understanding of human cancer risk.

Molecular Dosimetry of DNA and Hemoglobin Adducts in Mice and Rats Exposed to Ethylene Oxide

Experiments involving ethylene oxide (ETO) have been used to support the concept of using adducts in hemoglobin as a surrogate for DNA adducts in target tissues. The relationship between repeated exposures to ETO and the formation of N-(2-hydroxyethyl)valine (HEtVal) in hemoglobin and 7-(2-hydroxyethyl)guanine (7-HEG) in DNA was investigated in male rats and mice exposed by inhalation to 0, 3, 10, 33, or 100 ppm ETO for 6 hr/day for 4 weeks, or exposed to 100 ppm (mice) or 300 ppm (rats) for 1, 3, 5, 10, or 20 days (5 days/week). HEtVal was determined by Edman degradation, and 7-HEG was quantitated by HPLC separation and fluorescence detection. HEtVal formation was linear between 3 and 33 ppm ETO and increased in slope above 33 ppm. The dose-response curves for 7-HEG in rat tissues were linear between 10 and 100 ppm ETO and increased in slope above 100 ppm. In contrast, only exposures to 100 ppm ETO resulted in significant accumulation of 7-HEG in mice. Hemoglobin adducts were lost at a greater rate than predicted by normal erythrocyte life span. The loss of 7-HEG from DNA was both species and tissue dependent, with the adduct half-lives ranging from 2.9 to 5.8 days in rat tissues (brain, kidney, liver, lung, spleen, testis) and 1.0 to 2.3 days in all mouse tissues except kidney (t1/2 = 6.9 days). The concentrations of HEtVal were similar in concurrently exposed rats and mice, whereas DNA from rats had at least 2-fold greater concentrations of 7-HEG than DNA from mice.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Molecular dosimetry of DNA and hemoglobin adducts in mice and rats exposed to ethylene oxide.

Experiments involving ethylene oxide (ETO) have been used to support the concept of using adducts in hemoglobin as a surrogate for DNA adducts in target tissues. The relationship between repeated exposures to ETO and the formation of N-(2-hydroxyethyl)valine (HEtVal) in hemoglobin and 7-(2-hydroxyethyl)guanine (7-HEG) in DNA was investigated in male rats and mice exposed by inhalation to 0, 3, 10, 33, or 100 ppm ETO for 6 hr/day for 4 weeks, or exposed to 100 ppm (mice) or 300 ppm (rats) for 1, 3, 5, 10, or 20 days (5 days/week). HEtVal was determined by Edman degradation, and 7-HEG was quantitated by HPLC separation and fluorescence detection. HEtVal formation was linear between 3 and 33 ppm ETO and increased in slope above 33 ppm. The dose-response curves for 7-HEG in rat tissues were linear between 10 and 100 ppm ETO and increased in slope above 100 ppm. In contrast, only exposures to 100 ppm ETO resulted in significant accumulation of 7-HEG in mice. Hemoglobin adducts were lost at a greater rate than predicted by normal erythrocyte life span. The loss of 7-HEG from DNA was both species and tissue dependent, with the adduct half-lives ranging from 2.9 to 5.8 days in rat tissues (brain, kidney, liver, lung, spleen, testis) and 1.0 to 2.3 days in all mouse tissues except kidney (t1/2 = 6.9 days). The concentrations of HEtVal were similar in concurrently exposed rats and mice, whereas DNA from rats had at least 2-fold greater concentrations of 7-HEG than DNA from mice.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Significance of DNA Adduct Studies in Animal Models for Cancer Molecular Dosimetry and Risk Assessment

To elucidate the relationship between DNA adduct formation and tumorigenesis, a number of experiments have been conducted to measure DNA adducts in target tissues from experimental animals during continuous exposure to carcinogens. With aflatoxins, aromatic amines, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, tumor induction appears to be associated with the major DNA adduct detected, whereas with N-nitrosamines the response is normally correlated with minor forms of DNA damage. During continuous carcinogen administration, steady-state adduct concentrations are generally obtained in the target tissues, and there is often a linear correlation between the carcinogen concentration and the steady-state DNA adduct level. Exceptions exist when the mechanism of activation changes or with the onset of significant toxicity. Steady-state DNA adduct levels are often linearly related to the tumorigenic response. Carcinogen-induced cell proliferation occurs when significant deviations from linearity are observed. Because DNA adducts detected in humans are chemically identical to those found in experimental animals, DNA adduct data in animals may contribute to our understanding of human cancer risk.

DNA adduct formation of the carcinogen 2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5- f]-quinoline in target tissues of the F-344 rat

2-Amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5- f]quinoline (IQ), a potent bacterial mutagen present in broiled sardines, cooked beef and beef extract, is a carcinogen in the F-344 rat, affecting mainly the liver and small and large intestines. Using 32P-postlabeling assays, the formation of IQ-DNA adducts was examined in male F-344 rats. Twenty-four hours after i.p. doses (5–50 mg IQ/kg) the liver, small and large intestine each showed the presence of 5 adducts, the liver and large intestine having an average of 18.1 and 2.4 times as many adducts, respectively, as the small intestine. None of these adducts could be detected in vehicletreated animals. It is concluded that IQ forms specific DNA adducts in target tissues of the F-344 rat.