Divje Babe Research Articles

On the Significance of Divje babe I Cave for the Stratigraphy, Sedimentology, and Chronology of Palaeolithic Cave Sites in Slovenia


 
 
 The article reviews the development and interpretation of procedures used in the study of the sedimentary sequence of the Divje babe I Palaeolithic cave site. The data were obtained from publications, archives, and personal information provided by Ivan Turk, who directed the excavations and directed the laboratory investigations. The profile of Divje babe I is currently the best researched and chronologically defined Late Pleistocene cave profile in Slovenia. For the first time, various sedimentological and other data from the standard profile were upgraded with the same data obtained on standardized ground plan surfaces and depths. A large spatial (lateral) variability was discovered, associated with generally contemporaneous but different cave microenvironments, which were crucially influenced by different amounts of water in all aggregate states. Without taking into account temporal and spatial dimensions, it would not be possible to combine all statistical sets of collected data on sediments, their contents, and climatic parameters into a unified system.
 
 

The Neanderthal Musical Instrument from Divje Babe I Cave (Slovenia): A Critical Review of the Discussion

The paper is a critical review of different evidence for the interpretation of an extremely important archaeological find, which is marked by some doubt. The unique find, a multiple perforated cave bear femur diaphysis, from the Divje babe I cave (Slovenia), divided the opinions of experts, between those who advocate the explanation that the find is a musical instrument made by a Neanderthal, and those who deny it. Ever since the discovery, a debate has been running on the basis of this division, which could only be closed by similar new finds with comparable context, and defined relative and absolute chronology.

The Mousterian Musical Instrument from the Divje babe I cave (Slovenia): Arguments on the Material Evidence for Neanderthal Musical Behaviour

In 1995, an unusually perforated femur of a juvenile cave bear was found in the Divje babe I Palaeolithic cave site in Slovenia. The supposition that it could be a flute led to heated debates. According to its archaeological context and chronostratigraphic position, if made by humans, it could only be attributed to Neanderthals. The crucial question was related to the origin of the holes. These could only have been made either by a carnivore or by human intervention. Results of experimental testing of both hypotheses do not support a carnivore origin of the holes. Furthermore, the method of artificial creation of the holes, which left no conventional traces of manufacture, was defined. Computed tomography revealed traces, which could be the result of human agency and called into serious question the origin of some features previously declared to be solely of carnivore origin. Recent musical experiments performed on a replica of the reconstructed musical instrument revealed its great musical capability. Together with some other findings from Divje babe I, the Mousterian musical instrument offers a unique insight into the Neanderthals’ symbolic behaviour and their cognitive abilities. The multidisciplinary results of comprehensive analyses of this exceptional find are first presented here together with its chronostratigraphic, palaeo-environmental, and archaeological contexts.

Mousterian osseous artefacts? The case of Divje babe I, Slovenia

In the Divje babe I cave in western Slovenia, several osseous artefacts were found in the Mousterian levels besides a Neanderthal bone musical instrument; they are interpreted as being projectile points, awls, and polishers. They originate from layers that have been dated by the ESR method between 50 and 110 ka. The majority of osseous artefacts show no characteristic traces of manufacture and use, which is explained by the strong effect of corrosion documented in all the excavated layers of the site. These artefacts are presented here in the context of the site at which several elements of ‘modern’ behaviour have been discovered and recognised in Mousterian levels.

The Pleistocene clastic sediments in the Divje babe I cave, Slovenia. Geochemical characterisation and provenance (Part 2)

Different grain size fractions of clastic sediments (40–65, 0.5–3, and < 0.5 mm) from the Divje babe I cave were chemically analysed. In the chemical composition of the medium and fine fractions, four groups of variables were revealed: 1) MgO, LOI, TOT/C — dolomite, autochthonous terrigenous component; 2) P2O5, TOT/S, Mo, Sr, Cu, CaO, and so on — bones/apatite cement, biochemical chemical components; 3) SiO2, Al2O3, REE, Rb, Zr, K2O, Th, TiO2, Fe2O3, and so on — non-carbonate, allochthonous terrigenous components; and 4) U (Cd, MnO) — more mobile chemical components. Vertical distributions of P2O5, SiO2, and U in the fine fraction suggest five geochemical boundaries. The origin of P2O5 is attributed mainly to the cave bear. A negative correlation between the content of SiO2 and cavernously corroded clasts (indicating a humidity), indicates a dominant aeolian transport of non-carbonate material into the cave. Vertical distribution of U indicates the migration of U and its enrichment in the deeper parts of the sedimentary sequence. The mobilization of U was influenced by the duration of exposure of the sediments on the cave floor. The chemical characteristics of non-carbonate material indicate that source rocks probably belong to the Triassic volcanic, volcanogenic and terrigenous sedimentary rocks.

The Pleistocene clastic sediments in the Divje babe I cave, Slovenia. Palaeoclimate (part 1)

Abstract The clastic sediments in the Divje babe I cave consist mainly of autochthonous terrigenous dolomite clasts, allochthonous terrigenous non-carbonate grains, and biogenic fragments, especially remains of the cave bear. These components are frequently cemented by apatite and subordinate calcite cement into aggregates (concretions) and into breccia. The formation and transformation of cave sediments were affected by climate and to some extent by the duration of sediment exposure to surface conditions on the cave floor. Congelifracts, a product of frost action, and cavernously corroded clasts, a result of corrosion by condensation and percolating water, were formed before being covered by younger sediments. Thus, the distributions of congelifracts and cavernously corroded clasts can be used to interpret climate changes in the period of 39.7 to 116.1 ka, with at least four hiatuses lasting from 9.0 to 39.7 ky. Based on the relative abundance of congelifracts, the palaeoclimate record can be correlated with global temperature changes established by oxygen isotopes δ 18 O from the Greenland ice. The succession C (cold)–H (humid), layers 2 to 11–12, is correlated with the lower part of OIS 3 and OIS 4, while the succession T (temperate)–D (dry), layers 12–13 to 23, is correlated with OIS 5.

Some observations on the supposed natural origin of the Divje babe I flute

The perforated bear femur discovered in the Divje babe I cave in Slovenia is probably one of the most debated Mousterian discoveries. Because the disposition of perforations makes it look like a flute, many researchers tried to find explanations as to how these perforations were made and a large number of studies have focused on demonstrating the natural character of perforations. Our paper present the route of this discovery reflected in studies with greater impact, as well as our observations after reviewing such studies. In the multitude of articles aiming at demonstrating the natural character of the flute, no bone with perforations has been proven to be similar to the Divje babe I one up to this moment. It seems that the possibility of the holes having been made by carnivores is even more difficult to demonstrate than the anthropic origin of the holes, even in the absence of visible tool marks.

Reassessing the Aurignacian of Slovenia: Techno-economic behaviour and direct dating of osseous projectile points

The Palaeolithic of southern Central Europe has a long history of archaeological research. Particularly, the presence of numerous osseous projectile points in many early Upper Palaeolithic (EUP) assemblages in this region has attracted the attention of the international research community. However, the scarcity of properly identified and well-dated Aurignacian contexts represents an obstacle for investigation of the nature and timing of the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition. In this context, the question of whether Neandertals made Aurignacian osseous projectile points, either on their own or as a consequence of cultural interaction with anatomically modern humans (AMH), still remains an open issue. Here we reassess the EUP record of Slovenia by evaluating the Aurignacian character of the assemblages from Potočka zijalka, Mokriška jama and Divje babe I in the light of their suggested roots in the local Mousterian. We provide a comprehensive description of the lithic industry from Potočka zijalka, which represents one of the rare EUP assemblages of southern Central Europe with a representative number of lithic artefacts to be analysed from the perspective of lithic technology and raw material economy. Our re-analysis of the Slovenian assemblages is backed by a series of 11 new ultrafiltered collagen 14C dates obtained directly on associated osseous projectile points from the studied assemblages. The Aurignacian of Potočka zijalka underlines the remarkable consistency of the Early Aurignacian with low typo-technological variability across Europe, resulting from a marked dependence on transported toolkits and raw material conservation. The new radiocarbon determinations for the Aurignacian of Slovenia appear to post-date the 34–32 ka BP (thousands of years before present) threshold for the last Neandertals in the region. Although not falsified, the hypothesis of Aurignacian bone tools in southern Central Europe as a product of late Neandertals is not supported by our re-examination of the EUP record of Slovenia.

Hair imprints in Pleistocene cave sediments and the use of X-ray micro-computed tomography for their reconstruction

Detailed studies of cave sediments in the Divje babe I cave, in western Slovenia, have revealed both fossil hairs and the imprints of such hairs present within phosphate aggregates in the clastic sediments. These aggregates consist of fine rock and bone fragments, as well as hairs cemented by phosphate precipitated from pore water. The hairs and their imprints were discovered by means of scanning electron microscopy and are likely to have belonged to cave bears, which were the most frequent inhabitants of this cave. From X-ray micro-computed tomography showing the spatial distribution of the hair imprints, and their number, it appears that the hairs did not belong to one particular animal which died at the location where the samples were collected, rather the hairs probably accumulated on the floor of the cave not only from cadavers, but also because hairs were shed during the hibernation of bears and their visits to the cave.

DID NEANDERTHALS PLAY MUSIC? X‐RAY COMPUTED MICRO‐TOMOGRAPHY OF THE DIVJE BABE ‘FLUTE’*

Archaeological evidence for wind musical instruments made by modern humans has been well established from the Upper Palaeolithic in Europe. Musical instruments evidently made by Neanderthals have not been found so far. The most controversial object is a juvenile cave bear femur with two complete holes, found in 1995 in the Middle Palaeolithic layers of the Cave Divje babe I, Slovenia. The bone was interpreted as a possible Neanderthal ‘flute’, but some scholars have firmly rejected this hypothesis on the basis of taphonomic observations, suggesting a carnivore origin for the holes. Here, we show the results of X‐ray computed micro‐tomography (mCT) performed on the Divje babe I ‘flute’. Our analyses demonstrate that there were originally four holes, possibly made with pointed stones and bone tools. Most surface modifications near the holes, previously interpreted as effects of carnivore gnawing, are post‐depositional marks. Furthermore, a thin layer has been removed around one of the complete holes, producing a flat surface, possibly to facilitate perforation. The new data show that a Neanderthal manufacture of the object cannot be ruled out.

Identification of depositional hiatuses in karst infillings – Example from Divje babe I cave (Slovenia)

The Divje babe I cave is world known Paleolithic site in western Slovenia. In this paper, special interest is given to the identification of sedimentary hiatuses in karst infillings. Hiatuses can be the most reliably identified by detailed radiometric dating throughout the profile. However, this method is very expensive from economical point of view. New approach was developed in Divje babe I cave. Study of morphological characteristics of clast, may reveal the position of hiatuses. Four presumable hiatuses were assessed in sedimentary profile ranging from depth - 281 cm to - 481 cm below the contemporary ground floor in Divje babe I cave. Two hiatuses can be confirmed by results of radiometric datings, but another two hiatuses are doubtful. However, the identification of hiatuses by radiometric dating greatly depends on vertical length between two dated levels. Larger the length, greater the probability that hiatus was overlooked. Reliability of two presumable hiatuses can be confirmed by additional radiometric datings or with another analysis, such as measurement of degree of weathering.

Paleotemperature record in late pleistocene clastic sediments at Divje babe 1 cave (Slovenia)

A new sedimentary morphogenic analysis was carried out at the Divje babe I Paleolithic site to determine paleotemperatures for Late Pleistocene deposits (around 80,000–40,000 BP) and to discover hiatuses in the sedimentary sequence. The Divje babe I paleotemperature record is based on the relative abundance of congelifracts in a 280 cm thick sedimentary sequence. Congelifracts are clasts whose morphogenesis is directly associated with post-depositional frost wedging. The Divje babe I paleotemperature record compares well with global GRIP (Summit) and other regional paleotemperature records for the Late Pleistocene. Comparisons are supported by ESR dates from the Divje babe I site. Two significantly cool climate phases were identified in the Divje babe I record. The older cool phase was placed between 67,000 BP and 62,000 BP and the second, younger cool phase was placed between 61,000 BP and 58,000 BP (both Middle Würmian) according to correlations with the GRIP record. The main disadvantage with the Divje babe I paleotemperature record is missing data. The sequence of cave sediments is not complete in Divje babe I due to breaks in sedimentation. Two reliable and two assumed hiatuses were identified in the studied sedimentary sequence.

MOUSTERIAN MUSICIANSHIP? THE CASE OF THE DIVJE BABE I BONE

Summary. The reputed Neanderthal ‘flute’ from the Slovenian site of Divje babe I has stimulated much interest and detailed research since the original publication of its discovery in 1997. In spite of nearly ten years' worth of analysis and discussion its status as an artefact has remained ambiguous; nevertheless it is still frequently cited as a ‘flute’. This paper examines the literature and research regarding this object, and finds that much of the ambiguity regarding the object's status derives from the literature itself. It concludes that there is no need to invoke hominin agency in explaining the features of the bone.

Noteworthy rodent records from the Upper Pleistocene and Holocene of Slovenia / Données remarquables sur les rongeurs du Pléistocène Supérieur et de l'Holocène de Slovénie

AbstractFive significant records of rodents are reported from the Upper Pleistocene and Holocene of Slovenia. The identification of black rat Rattus rattus from the Late Bronze/Early Iron Age (ca. 1400–400 cal. BC) at Podjamca is thought to be one of the first records in Mediterranean Europe from the pre-Roman period. Evidence is also presented for the presence of Apodemus agrarius at Podjamca (at least 7800 y BP) and Suhadole (first half of the 1st century AD); the latter falls outside the current species range. The discovery of Dinaromys bogdanovi in Early Mesolithic layers (ca. 9600–7800 y BP) at Podjamca and of Late Mesolithic age (ca. 7800–6000 y BP) at Mala Triglavca are the first Holocene records outside the recent range of the species. Cricetulus migratorius (Podjamca, ca. 9600–7800 y BP; Mala Triglavca, 7800–6000 y BP) and Sicista subtilis (Divje babe I, ca. 80–75 ky BP) are reported for the first time in this part of Europe.

Noteworthy rodent records from the Upper Pleistocene and Holocene of Slovenia / Données remarquables sur les rongeurs du Pléistocène Supérieur et de l'Holocène de Slovénie

AbstractFive significant records of rodents are reported from the Upper Pleistocene and Holocene of Slovenia. The identification of black rat Rattus rattus from the Late Bronze/Early Iron Age (ca. 1400–400 cal. BC) at Podjamca is thought to be one of the first records in Mediterranean Europe from the pre-Roman period. Evidence is also presented for the presence of Apodemus agrarius at Podjamca (at least 7800 y BP) and Suhadole (first half of the 1st century AD); the latter falls outside the current species range. The discovery of Dinaromys bogdanovi in Early Mesolithic layers (ca. 9600–7800 y BP) at Podjamca and of Late Mesolithic age (ca. 7800–6000 y BP) at Mala Triglavca are the first Holocene records outside the recent range of the species. Cricetulus migratorius (Podjamca, ca. 9600–7800 y BP; Mala Triglavca, 7800–6000 y BP) and Sicista subtilis (Divje babe I, ca. 80–75 ky BP) are reported for the first time in this part of Europe.

Ontogenetic development of dentition in the cave bear

In this contribution the ontogenetic development of dentition in the cave bear (Ursus spelaeus Rosenmüller &amp; Heinroth) is described up to the age of about four years, when the animals became adult and the formation of their teeth was completed. The process of tooth growth and the replacement of deciduous teeth by permanent dentition took place in a similar way as with the present-day brown bear (Ursus arctos Linné). The teeth eruption sequence is the same in both species. The specimens of cave bear jawbones that served for this study were collected from the well-known Palaeolithic site Divje babe I (W Slovenia). Individual age estimations of these jawbones were made on the supposition that a certain ontogenetic stage in the development of cave bear dentition corresponds to an approximately equal age of an individual as with the brown bear. The growth of the jaw, however, was essentially faster in cubs of the cave bear. We also presume that the secondary sex dimorphism in cave bears with males having larger jawbones than females was already expressed in the first year of life. With regard to some indices, especially after noting the obvious discordance between the expected and actually observed mortality profile, we should also consider another possibility; that ontogenetic development in the cave bear was significantly slower than in present-day bears. However, this alternative does not seem very probable, because a proper ontogenetic development has its functional importance. A long time lag in the eruption of permanent molars would mean a certain disadvantage to the species.&nbsp