Livelihood Diversification Strategies Research Articles

Challenges and Opportunities of Livelihood Diversification in Ethiopia: A Review Article

Diversifying sources of income has been recognized as a crucial approach to alleviate poverty, mitigate food insecurity, and enhance the overall well-being of rural residents in Ethiopia. This review outlines the key challenges and opportunities associated with livelihood diversification in the country. The study identifies several primary constraints that hinder livelihood diversification, including inadequate infrastructure development, scarcity of arable land, limited access to credit services, gender disparities, and poor rural-urban linkages. However, it also highlights potential avenues for sustainable livelihoods through diversification, such as the promotion of sustainable land management practices, adoption of climate-resilient agricultural strategies, and the provision of training and capacity building programs. To facilitate successful livelihood diversification, the review emphasizes the urgency of investing in infrastructure development and ensuring access to credit services. Moreover, it underscores the importance of promoting gender equality to mitigate the challenges faced by women in diversifying their livelihoods. Encouraging sustainable land management practices, implementing climate-resilient agricultural strategies, and providing comprehensive training and capacity building programs are identified as critical measures to support diversification efforts in Ethiopia effectively. The review offers evidence-based policy recommendations to inform government agencies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and other stakeholders on effective strategies that can enhance livelihood diversification in the country, while also ensuring inclusivity and sustainability. The significance of livelihood diversification within Ethiopia's development agenda cannot be overstated, and it is imperative for stakeholders to act in addressing the identified challenges and capitalizing on the opportunities presented by diversification. By doing so, they can contribute to poverty reduction and sustainable development in the country. However, it is essential to note that further research is necessary to explore the efficacy of livelihood diversification strategies in different contexts and identify additional opportunities and challenges that may arise.

Personal Earnings in Pakistan: Role of Information Communication Technology (ICT) and Livelihood Diversification

The determination of factors explaining personal earnings has remained a matter of great interest among economists. This study explores important socioeconomic and demographic factors affecting personal earnings in Pakistan with a special focus on the contribution of ICT usage and livelihood diversification. Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression models have been estimated using the most recent available PSLM (2019-20) data published by the Pakistan Bureau of Statistics (PBS). After careful screening, the data has been restricted to only those individuals who earn either through farm, non-farm, or diversified livelihoods. The results suggest that the use of ICTs has a significant contribution to the earnings in Pakistan. Similarly, livelihood diversification i.e., participating in both farm and non-farm employment activities can greatly improve personal earnings. The non-farm sector also remarkably supports the agriculture-based Pakistan’s economy. Especially, the small landholders have to inevitably search for additional livelihood sources as risk coping strategy. Education is found one of the most important determinants of personal earnings. It is suggested that measures should be taken to improve access to ICTs and internet facilities at the national level with a special focus on the most backward areas. Moreover, the government may acknowledge and support the livelihood diversification strategies as a component of the national objective for job creation. Stringent efforts are recommended to ensure the provision of free and quality education for all with equal opportunities.

Rural households' livelihood adaptation strategies in the face of changing climate: A case study from Pakistan

Rural and agricultural communities' adaptation to climate change has gained significant attention owing to many countries' vulnerability to climate change risks. A similar trend has been witnessed in South Asia, a highly climate-vulnerable region, where research has grown dramatically considering the agriculture sector's vulnerability to climate-induced disasters. However, little attention has been paid to the adaptation of the livelihoods of rural households. This research, therefore, takes the case of Pakistan to explore livelihood adaptation strategies of rural households to climate change and investigate the factors that expedite or halt the adoption of livelihood diversification strategies. A multistage sampling design is used in this research, where 480 rural households from the Punjab province of Pakistan were selected and interviewed using stratified and random sampling approaches. A multivariate probit (MVP) regression model is employed to analyze the factors affecting households' adoption of livelihood adaptation strategies. The results show that besides adaptation of agronomic operations (agricultural adaptation strategies), rural households in the study area employed a wide range of strategies to adapt their livelihoods to climate change. These strategies include poultry and livestock farming, value addition of farm produce, trading of animals and farm commodities, small businesses (shops, etc.), daily wage labor, horticultural crop farming, and non-farming jobs. The estimates of the MVP model revealed that respondents' education, household size, income, access to a credit facility, access to farm advisory services, and access to climate forecasts have significantly influenced the choice of livelihood adaptation strategies. Based on these findings, this research recommends that the authorities should make efforts to improve farmers' understanding of the adaptation of climate change risks and educate them to adopt multiple livelihood options to improve the resilience of their livelihoods to climate-induced risks. This research has important policy implications for other countries with similar socio-economic features.

Determinants Of Livelihood Diversification In Punjab, Pakistan

This study was conducted in three randomly selected districts viz. Vehari, Faisalabad, and Narowal of the Punjab province to examine the determinants of livelihood diversification. Using multistage sampling 480 respondents were interviewed face to face using a structured questionnaire and were analyzed by SPSS (version 21). The major findings reveal that most of the smallholders, i.e., 126 (26.3%), relied on cropping and off-farm livelihood diversification strategies to sustain their household income. The structural determinant factors were identified as “push factors” while household/domestic determinant factors were identified as “pull factors” of livelihood diversification. Moreover, the results of the multiple linear regression model unveiled that household’s choice and adoption of livelihood diversification strategies were positively affected by age, level of education, livestock holding status, access to credit, extension contacts, and income while gender, landholding size, access to irrigation, access to mass media, and crop risk were negatively affected. The study concludes that both structural and household determinants of livelihood diversification contribute positively to improving the smallholders' household well-being and keeping them away from vulnerabilities. The study findings have implications for policymakers and development practitioners who are working to improve the livelihoods of smallholders in the Punjab province, Pakistan.

The role of livelihood diversification strategies in the total household income in Takusa Woreda, Amhara Region, Ethiopia

The role of livelihood diversification strategies in the total household income in Takusa Woreda, Amhara Region, Ethiopia

Impacts of multiple livelihood diversification strategies on diet quality and welfare of smallholder farmers: Insight from Kaffa zone of Ethiopia

In Ethiopia, agriculture is the primary source of food and livelihood for many rural households, making it a dominant sector that seeks to reduce food/nutrition insecurity and poverty. Even if it is dominant, currently the sector is facing many challenges such as unexpected shock like drought and flooding, reduction in output mainly due to soil nutrient degradation and lack of capital to use improved agricultural technologies. Hence, rural households are compelled to develop strategies to cope with the increasing vulnerability associated with agricultural production. The current study therefore assessed rural households' participation in a combination of multiple livelihood diversification strategies and its impact on diet quality and welfare of smallholder farmers in Southwestern Ethiopia. As the average treatment effect on the treated result from multinomial endogenous switching regression model shows, an isolated participation in non-farm livelihood diversification results in a significant effect on smallholder farmers' welfare but, it doesn't have a significant effect on nutrition security measured in dietary diversity. Likewise, joint participation in off-farm and non-farm livelihood diversification results in a significant effect on rural households' nutrition security however it doesn't have a significant effect on welfare. The only livelihood diversification package that has a significant effect on both welfare and nutrition security simultaneously is off-farm livelihood diversification alone. As a result, policymakers and rural finance programs should shift their focus and place a greater emphasis in incentivizing smallholder farmers to invest on diversification strategies that can boost both welfare and nutrition security simultaneously, which is off-farm diversification.

Household Income Diversification Strategies, Welfare and Child Nutrition in Uganda: A Dynamic Panel Analysis 2005–2020

Many of the studies on households and people’s welfare dynamics in Uganda have been preoccupied with poverty lines and welfare indices estimation, particularly at the macro level. Little attention has been paid to the impact of livelihood diversification strategies on household welfare and health outcomes (i.e. child nutrition) for both rural and urban dwellers. Thus, this study examines the impact of livelihood (i.e. income) diversification strategies on household welfare and child nutrition. Eight waves of the Uganda National Panel Survey (2005/06–2019/20) dataset collected by the Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS) with the support of the World Bank are utilised for this purpose. An instrumental variable approach implemented through a two-stage residual inclusion (2SRI) technique is applied in which alternative correlated random effects (CRE) and fixed effects models are estimated, these two techniques enabled us to address the endogeneity problem associated with livelihood diversification by including a generalised residual among the regressors and also including appropriate list of instruments in the latter. The findings from the study show that indeed diversified households enjoy higher levels of consumption and thus livelihood diversification strategies are welfare-improving. Second, livelihood diversification is also found to improve child nutrition status. By and large, the results point to the fact that households should at least run a diversified means of livelihood since this offers a feasible way of shielding households against risks and also coping and adapting to shocks among rural and urban poor households.

Adaptation to Climate Change and Variability by Farming Households in North-Central Nigeria

Climate change and variability present major environmental and socioeconomic challenges to populations in sub-Saharan Africa that depend upon favourable climatic conditions for agricultural production and for their sustenance and livelihoods. This study assessed the adaptation strategies used by farming households in north-central Nigeria to reduce the impacts of persistent ongoing climate variability, mainly changes in rainfall and temperatures, as a result of climate change. Data were collected through household questionnaires from 120 farming households in Bokkos Local Government Area, Plateau State, north-central Nigeria. The results indicated that the number of years of farming experience was positively correlated with farmers’ knowledge and awareness of climate change (p = 0.000). Furthermore, education status significantly influenced farmers’ adaptation strategies to both deal with climate variability and to ensure household income (p < 0.05). The results from farmers indicated that a range of on-farm and off-farm adaptation strategies have been adopted. On-farm strategies include changing the crop planting time; crop diversification; irrigation farming; the use of fertilizers, manure, and agrichemicals to boost crop yield; and planting disease-resistant and drought-tolerant crop varieties. Off-farm strategies include small-scale trading and artisanal ventures that can augment the household income. Together, these diverse activities can enhance households’ resilience to the negative effects of climate variability. It is recommended that policymakers improve institutional support and training for farmers to enable viable livelihood diversification strategies, enhancing their climate change adaptation and resilience.

The Choices of Livelihood Diversification Strategies and Determinant Factors Among the Peri-Urban Households in Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia

The Choices of Livelihood Diversification Strategies and Determinant Factors Among the Peri-Urban Households in Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia

Tumpangsari-Agroforestry Practices and Its Socioeconomic Impact on Communities in the Gunung Arjuna-Lalijiwo Forest Reserve, East Java, Indonesia

The issue of poverty remains a significant and persistent challenge in Indonesia, particularly in rural areas. Agroforestry has been practised in the Gunung Arjuna Reserve Forest, which has been managed by Perhutani since the 1970s. However, the absence of effective oversight and guidance has hindered substantial socioeconomic progress. In 2016, the management of 544.74 hectares of this forest was taken over by Universitas Brawijaya (UBF). This study focused on the Karangploso sub-district, specifically within the Tawangargo, Donowarih, and Ngenep villages under UBF's management. The study aimed to assess the impact of the transition from Perhutani's management to UBF's current administration of the Gunung Arjuna Reserve Forest. It did so by (i) analyzing factors influencing the total area of cultivated land in the tumpangsari-agroforestry system and (ii) evaluating the socioeconomic consequences of this management shift. A quantitative approach and convenience sampling technique were employed, selecting respondents based on accessibility and proximity to the researcher on-site. The results indicated that 34% of respondents cultivated crops on land areas ranging from 1.0 to 1.5 hectares. The regression analysis demonstrated a strong relationship (R2 = 0.847) between factors such as work duration, plant diversity, education level, income, and the number of family members engaged in farming and the total cultivated land area. The study also found that the transition from Perhutani to UBF management had a significantly positive impact on socioeconomic aspects, such as total income, social interactions, and infrastructure, as perceived by 67% of respondents. Furthermore, 70% of respondents acknowledged their reliance on the agroforestry system for income, with 88.86% strongly agreeing that it contributed to family income, and 84.57% strongly agreeing that it was a vital source of raw materials for sustenance. The implication of transferring the 544.74-hectare reserve forest to Universitas Brawijaya had a favourable outcome, enhancing the living standards of the communities in the vicinity. The tumpangsari-agroforestry system not only improved socioeconomic conditions but also fostered social interactions, improved infrastructure, and preserved the forest's ecology. It is recommended that the community continue cultivating a variety of crops with guidance from UB Forest management and other stakeholders. Creating national awareness about the benefits of agroforestry in rural poverty reduction is vital, emphasizing the need to explore and adopt diversified livelihood strategies.

Does translocal vulnerability apply to labor migrants into the sesame production belt amid covid-19? Evidence from districts in Ethiopia

PurposeThe outbreak of covid-19 has affected international migration and remittance and has also narrowed down the opportunities for internal labor migrants. The pandemic has also left internal migrants in a threatening situation due to the closure of job opportunities. Taking the migration of labor from the highland toward the sesame production belt into consideration, this study aims to examine the influencing factors of migration to the sesame belt amid covid-19 and ascertain the link between migration and translocal vulnerability.Design/methodology/approachThe study followed a mixed approach that combines quantitative and qualitative methods. However, the quantitative approach tends to dominate due to the nature of the objectives of the study. The study was conducted in the central Gondar zone, using a cross-sectional survey design with a sample size of 150 households collected from January to March, 2021. Both descriptive and econometrics models such as binary logit model have been used.FindingsBased on the study result, we came to understand that migration is part and parcel of the livelihoods of the farm household that accounts for 35% of migration status amid covid-19. Particularly, the study came to conclude that households’ decision to send family members heavily relied on their prior information and fear of transmission of the coronavirus to family members which are statistically significant. As a result, this piece of work can be a good witness for translocal vulnerability where studies are very limited in the area. For this, this study suggests that concerned bodies like social and labor affairs in consultation with the agriculture offices and bureaus at a different level and the investors in the migrant’s destination should facilitate the protection and awareness mechanisms so that the spread of covid-19 can be minimized and thereby both the migrants and the investors can be benefitted from the migrants’ work amid covid-19.Originality/valueThis study tries to connect the current spread of covid-19 with the translocal vulnerability context. Primarily, it empirically argued the translocal vulnerability factor is the main determinant for the farm households to send families’ labor as a livelihood diversification strategy. Very limited studies consider the translocal vulnerability implication of migration; notably to the best of the researchers’ knowledge, studies that linked covid-19 with translocal vulnerability context are scant. On top of that, many studies that link migration with covid-19 tend to be inclined to international migration with very limited attention to internal migration.

The effect of the local environment on child nutritional outcomes: how does seasonality relate to wasting amongst children under 5 in south-west coastal Bangladesh?

The impact of short-term environmental changes on child nutritional status is not constant within populations. In many countries, the seasons are closely linked with many factors that are known to affect nutritional outcomes, such as food consumption, crop harvests, employment opportunities and illness. With extreme seasonal variation becoming more common, understanding how seasonality is related to child nutritional outcomes is vital. This study will explore spatial and temporal variation and determinants for acute malnutrition in a coastal river delta in south-west Bangladesh over the period of a year. Using a rural longitudinal survey, conducted in 2014–15 with 3 survey waves, wasting amongst children under 5 was studied. Spatial variation was analysed through ‘socio-ecological systems’, which capture interactions between ecosystems, livelihoods and populations. Wasting prevalence varied from 18.2% in the monsoon season to 8.7% post-major rice harvest (Aman). Seasons did not relate to wasting consistently over socio-ecological systems, with some systems showing greater variability over time, highlighting distinct seasonal dynamics in nutritional status. Wealthier socio-ecological systems had lower wasting generally, as expected, with greater livelihood diversification opportunities and strategies to smooth consumption. Nutrition interventions must consider seasonal peaks in acute malnutrition, as well as the environmental context when implementing programmes to maximise effectiveness. With increasing variability in seasonal changes, inequalities in the impact of season must be accounted for in health promotion activities. Furthermore, timing and season of survey implementation is an important factor to be accounted for in nutrition research, especially when comparing between two cross-sectional surveys.

Agroecology-Based Local Communities’ Vulnerability to Climate Change in Tembaro District, Southern Ethiopia

Introduction: Ethiopian agricultural system is almost all rain-fed agriculture systems, which is becoming more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and variability. Identification of farmers’ vulnerability level is important to select appropriate adaptation options to climate change. Thus, this study aimed to examine the vulnerability of communities’ livelihood to climate variability and change based on different agro-ecological zones of the study area using the livelihood vulnerability index–intergovernmental panel on climate change (LVI–IPCC) method. The data was collected from a representative 154 sample households using stratified random sampling techniques. Also, the data was collected from December 2020 to February 2021 by interviewing the selected respondents, which was supplemented with focus group discussion and key informant interviews.
 Results: There was a difference in vulnerability status between the selected agro-ecologies in the district depending on their livelihood strategies, access to infrastructure, characteristics of the household, and available technologies. The analysis yielded that, the overall vulnerability score for communities in highland agroecology was 0.029, midland agroecology was 0.038, and lowland agroecology was 0.114, which indicates that communities in law land agroecology are more vulnerable relative to midland and high land agro-ecologies.
 Conclusion: To enhance climate resilience or climate change adaptation strategies for vulnerable communities, there is a need to improve infrastructure facilities, diversification of livelihood strategies, provide improved seed varieties, and enhance soil and water conservation practices giving priority to more vulnerable communities. Decision-makers should plan adaptation in local contexts based on farmers' socioeconomic characteristics and livelihood strategies rather than adopting at international levels.

Assessment on land use changes and livelihood transition under the hydropower dam construction in Paunglaung Township, Southern Shan Highlands, Myanmar

AbstractWe examined agricultural land use changes and their impacts on the local livelihoods of upstream farmers after the Paunglaung hydropower dam construction in Myanmar. Landsat and GeoEye images, acquired in 2011 and 2018, were used to detect agricultural land use changes. A marked decrease in agricultural land (5.77% of farmland and 9.64% of swidden) was observed, whereas orchards and plantations were introduced as new farming practices. Using the household survey, the income strategies were categorized by different wealth groups, and the socioeconomic condition was compared among the groups. We also compared the annual household income before and after dam construction. A significant change in income strategies after the dam construction were observed in low‐income households, but not in medium and high‐income households. Local people engaged in diversified livelihood strategies after the dam construction, mainly in relocated villages. Besides, farmland lost due to dam construction caused the significant insufficiency of rice self‐consumption and consequently resulted in greater dependency on the market of rice and their products. This study highlighted land use changes due to dam construction and its impacts on the livelihood of local farmers, contributing to planning the land use and livelihood strategies for affected farmers to ensure their livelihood security.

Livelihood Resilience of Households Affected by The Upper Cisokan Pumped Storage Hydropower Development Project

This article examines the impact of the large-scale Upper Cisokan Pumped Storage Hydropower (UCPSH) development project, in West Java, Indonesia on household livelihoods. The process of land acquisition and resettlement has taken away land-based resources that are the source of livelihood for households in 4 villages around the project. This article discusses how the resilience of household livelihoods occurs 5 years after land acquisition and resettlement. This study was conducted by interviewing 134 households affected by land acquisition and resettlement living in the vicinity of the UCPSH project site. The level of severity is studied to see how the household can respond to disturbances. Livelihood resilience in affected households occurs when the household’s livelihood system can absorb disturbances, then responds by re-establishing livelihood capital and assets. Livelihood strategies are carried out based on the capacity possessed to maintain and improve the quality of life. As a result, there are two livelihood strategies carried out by the affected households, the agricultural intensification strategy has improved 9% of living conditions and the livelihood diversification strategy has improved 2.5% of living conditions.

Livelihood diversification strategies and determinants by smallholder farmers in the highland areas of North Shewa Ethiopia

Livelihood diversification strategies and determinants by smallholder farmers in the highland areas of North Shewa Ethiopia

Exploring Livelihood Strategies of Farmers and Herders and Their Human Well-Being in Qilian Mountain National Park, China

National parks have implemented restrictive measures on human activities to protect the ecological environment, which has changed the livelihood dependence and strategies of farmers and herders. Exploring the impact of livelihood strategies on the human well-being of farmers and herdsmen within the national park construction area can help to better develop livelihood intervention measures to achieve sustainable livelihoods for farmers and herders. A total of 329 farmers and herders in Qilian Mountain National Park in China were investigated, and one-way ANOVA and ordinary least squares were employed to analyze the impact of farmers’ and herders’ livelihood strategies on human well-being in different periods of national park construction. Our results show that the livelihood strategies of farmers and herders play an important role in their well-being. Farmers and herders adopted diversified livelihood strategies after the National Park System Pilot officially launched (after 2015). The well-being advantage of adopting a diversified livelihood strategy became evident over time. Specifically, farmers and herders adopting the settlement diversification livelihood strategy were able to better adapt to the development concept of the national park after the national park pilot was officially established (after 2017). However, nomadic, settled agricultural, and pastoral households were always at a disadvantage in terms of well-being. In addition, distance, nationality, gender, and education level were important factors affecting the well-being of farmers and herders. The results of this study are helpful for improving our understanding of the influence of livelihood strategies on the well-being of farmers and herders and the related challenges they face in the construction of national parks.

Diverse farmer livelihoods increase resilience to climate variability in southern Colombia

Climate variability affects agricultural production systems and rural communities, generating risks to food security and increasing rural poverty. Therefore, improving the capacity of rural households to adapt to climate variability has become one of the greatest challenges for international and national institutions. The objective of this study is to analyze the impact of rural households’ livelihood strategies with regard to their vulnerability and adaptation to climate variability. We systematically selected 162 rural households from 10 municipalities in the department of Huila (Colombia). Households were grouped according to their livelihood strategies, using 13 variables representative of their productive characteristics. Subsequently, three indices related to climate vulnerability were determined: a. exposure (climate variability between 1990 and 2012), b. sensitivity, and c. adaptive capacity. For the latter two, the community capitals framework was used. Using the three indices above, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s proposed vulnerability index was determined. We found seven livelihood strategies: i. Cattlemen-Cocoa Farmers, ii. Livestock-Cocoa Farmers, iii. Employees-Cocoa Farmers, iv. Cocoa Farmers, v. Diversified Farmers, vi. Landlords-Cocoa Farmers and vii. Coffee Farmers. Degree of vulnerability to climate variability was related to the livelihood strategy of rural households: those best endowed with capitals and with the most diverse livelihood strategies were the least vulnerable (Cattlemen-Cocoa Farmers and Livestock-Cocoa Farmers). While it is necessary to maintain a balance between capitals in the process of adapting to climate variability in rural households, at the community level it is essential to strengthen political capital, which will make it possible to construct and reinforce strategies for adapting to climate variability.

Organic cocoa farmer’s strategies and sustainability

São Tomé and Príncipe (STP) is one of the world’s smallest organic cocoa exporting countries, whose product has a positive socio-cultural and economic impact. Small producers who ensure it, are associated into two cooperatives that experience several difficulties and dilemmas including climate changes and poverty. Diversification of livelihood strategies could lead to wellbeing, poverty and climate mitigation. The aim of this study was to analyse producers’ perception of sustainability related to the organic cocoa production in STP and to explain the influence of different factors on their livelihood strategies (LS). An ordered probit model for disaggregation of factor categories was used for the 2021 period. The results showed that gender, age, family size, members on-farm and off-farm work and professional training courses do not influence livelihood strategies. The important variables for them are education level, perception of social class, insurances and loans and access to services.

‘From Plot to People’: A Photovoice Exploration of South Asian Farmer Livelihood Diversification Strategies When Extra Time and Money are Found Through Zero Tillage Adoption

Impact evaluations are dominated by the application of development economics to assess the direct impacts of change at the plot level, while studies that focus on the impact of such plot-level changes on livelihoods remain rare. This raises questions about the ‘so-what’ of the adoption of labour and money-saving practices such as Zero Tillage to the livelihoods of smallholder farmers. Piloting a qualitative photovoice methodology with 25 South Asian households, the priorities and strategies of resource-poor South Asian smallholder farmers are explored when they have freed time and financial resources available. Various activities related to agricultural and livelihood diversification are linked by informants to broader impacts on their resilience, life satisfaction and broader livelihood outcomes. Despite being a pilot qualitative study, results indicate that cereal system intensification may be synergistic and not antagonistic to crop and livelihood diversification, especially if framed in whole-of-livelihood-focused initiatives that look for opportunities to utilize saved resources. Likewise, the value of humanizing research through qualitative participatory methods that centre ‘people rather than plots’ is highlighted through the broad linkages that informants identified from their diverse livelihood strategies.