Diversity Of Farming Practices Research Articles

Envisioning prairie agroecology: Farmer visual constructions of place-based ecological agriculture in Canada

Climate change is driving new challenges for farmers around the world, provoking a sense of urgency in the search for on-farm solutions and pathways to sustainable agricultural systems. While agroecology has gained recognition as a promising option for climate resilience, it remains nascent in the Canadian Prairies—a significant agricultural region dominated by large-scale conventional agriculture. Amid the sprawling fields of grains and oilseeds primarily destined for export markets, growing farm consolidation, and increased land concentration, farmers committed to ecological principles are building a prefigurative foundation for prairie agroecology. Far from cohering into a unified definition, this article captures what agroecology on the Prairies looks like. Through a community-engaged research design and in consultation with the National Farmers Union of Canada, we explore farmers’ reflections on agroecology and provide a participatory platform for farmer-led constructions of agroecology. Through dialogue with 19 farmers of different farm sizes and production types that began in the 2021 farming season—one marked by drought and extreme heat—we use photovoice, visual elicitation interviews, and participatory video to document and mobilize visual constructions of an emerging prairie agroecology. Despite a shared vision among the farmer participants about the need for a sustainability transition through diversified farming practices, three key questions emerged about the future of prairie agroecology: (1) Can prairie agroecology scale up and out, and if so, under what conditions? (2) To what extent is prairie agroecology possible without dense, place-based social networks? and (3) What are the possibilities for prairie agroecology when the future of farming in the region is uncertain, especially given the changing farmer demographics and Canada’s settler colonial context? We explore these questions and provide reflections on key issues confronting the future of prairie agroecology.

Comprehensive Synthesis and Integrative Review of Agricultural Dynamics in Southwest Nigeria: Assessing Economic Viability, Technological Advances, and Rural Development Approaches

The study focuses on agricultural economic viability, technological advancements, and rural development strategies. The review draws upon a spectrum of scholarly research to provide an integrative analysis, aiming to better understand and address the challenges and opportunities within this vital sector. The economic viability of agriculture in Southwest Nigeria is critically examined, highlighting the significance of credit acquisition and repayment among watermelon farmers, underscoring the financial challenges and opportunities within the sector. This aspect is crucial for understanding the broader economic context that shapes agricultural practices and outcomes. Additionally, the profitability of broiler production is explored, further illustrating the economic dimensions of agricultural practices in the region. Technological advances represent another pivotal aspect of agricultural dynamics. The influence of portable water supply on rural households is explored, reflecting how technological improvements in basic infrastructure can significantly affect agricultural productivity and rural lifestyles. The relationship between organizational citizenship behavior and job performance in agro facilities is also examined, highlighting the intersection of human factors and technology in agriculture. The importance of modern communication tools, such as video, in agricultural extension services, is emphasized, demonstrating how digital media can bridge knowledge gaps and facilitate better farming practices. It reveals how traditional practices are interwoven with modern innovations and how factors like credit acquisition, technological infrastructure, and rural development strategies impact agricultural productivity and sustainability. Recommendations are made based on these findings. The paper suggests the need for enhanced support systems for credit acquisition among farmers, investment in technological infrastructure to boost productivity, and adoption of sustainable and diversified farming practices to ensure long-term viability. It also highlights the importance of integrating socio-economic and environmental considerations into agricultural policies to address broader challenges.

Avian influenza’s decimation of the poultry food supply requires open discussion of new strategies. Proceeding of The First International Avian Influenza Summit, University of Arkansas- October 16-17, 2023"

Avian influenza outbreaks have emerged as a critical threat to global food security as they continue to devastate poultry populations worldwide. This paper addresses the urgent need for an open and comprehensive discussion of novel strategies to mitigate the impact of avian influenza on the poultry food supply chain. The review integrates current scientific literature, epidemiological data, and socio-economic analyses to underscore the severity of the crisis. It highlights the complex interplay between viral evolution, poultry production practices, and international trade networks, emphasizing the multifaceted challenges faced by stakeholders in the poultry industry. The paper evaluates the existing approaches to avian influenza control and containment, examining their limitations and potential for improvement. It also explores emerging technologies, such as advanced surveillance systems, rapid diagnostic tools, and vaccine development, which offer promising avenues for proactive prevention and early intervention. Additionally, the discussion extends to alternative production models, including biosecure facilities, diversified farming practices, and sustainable supply chain management, as potential strategies to enhance resilience in the face of future outbreaks. Furthermore, the socio-economic repercussions of avian influenza outbreaks are examined, emphasizing their disproportionate impact on vulnerable communities and economies heavily reliant on poultry production. The paper underscores the importance of equitable distribution of resources and knowledge sharing to build global preparedness and response capacity. In conclusion, this review advocates for an open and collaborative discourse among stakeholders, including scientists, policymakers, industry leaders, and civil society, to collectively address the avian influenza crisis. It calls for a holistic approach that encompasses enhanced surveillance, innovative technologies, and diversified production methods while prioritizing inclusivity and equity in implementation. By fostering a transparent and forward-thinking dialogue, the global community can forge a resilient and sustainable future for the poultry food supply chain in the face of evolving avian influenza threats.

Diversified farms bolster forest-bird populations despite ongoing declines in tropical forests

While some agricultural landscapes can support wildlife in the short term, it is uncertain how well they can truly sustain wildlife populations. To compare population trends in different production systems, we sampled birds along 48 transects in mature forests, diversified farms, and intensive farms across Costa Rica from 2000 to 2017. To assess how land use influenced population trends in the 349 resident and 80 migratory species with sufficient data, we developed population models. We found, first, that 23% of species were stable in all three land use types, with the rest almost evenly split between increasing and decreasing populations. Second, in forest habitats, a slightly higher fraction was declining: 62% of the 164 species undergoing long-term population changes; nearly half of these declines occurred in forest-affiliated invertivores. Third, in diversified farms, 49% of the 230 species with population changes were declining, with 60% of these declines occurring in agriculture-affiliated species. In contrast, 51% of the species with population changes on diversified farms showed increases, primarily in forest-affiliated invertivores and frugivores. In intensive farms, 153 species showed population changes, also with similar proportions of species increasing (50%) and decreasing (50%). Declines were concentrated in agriculture-affiliated invertivores and forest-affiliated frugivores; increases occurred in many large, omnivorous species. Our findings paint a complex picture but clearly indicate that diversified farming helps sustain populations of diverse, forest-affiliated species. Despite not fully offsetting losses in forest habitats, diversified farming practices help sustain wildlife in a critical time, before possible transformation to nature-positive policies and practices.

Linking ecosystem services provisioning with demand for animal-sourced food: an integrated modeling study for Tanzania

Standard tools that can quantitatively track the impacts of higher global demand for animal-sourced food to their local environmental effects in developing countries are largely missing. This paper presents a novel integrated assessment framework that links a model of the global agricultural and food system, a landscape-level environmental impact assessment model, and an ecosystem services simulation model. For Tanzania, this integrated assessment showed that a projected increase in the demand and production of foods of livestock origin with optimistic economic growth between 2010 and 2030 leads to an improvement in food security. However, resulting transitions in land use impact negatively on the future provisioning of ecosystem services, increasing phosphorus, nitrogen, and sediment in runoff and reducing water quality in areas downstream of the agricultural expansion. Losses in ecosystem services are lowest when diversified farming practices are adopted in areas of agricultural land expansion. The role of land management in the environmental impacts of expanded livestock production is highlighted, as is the need for a new generation of analytical tools to inform policy recommendations.

Rotational pasture management to increase the sustainability of mountain livestock farms in the Alpine region

Over the past 30 years, farming in the Alpine region has undergone important changes: the average number of animals per farm and the use of external inputs have increased while the diversity of farming practices has decreased, becoming similar to intensive farming. This change has led to a reduction in the supply of agroecosystem services and the sustainability of the mountain livestock sector. In this study, we investigated rotational grazing as alternative to continuous grazing to improve the sustainability of mountain farming practices. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide were measured together with soil properties (bulk density, saturated hydraulic conductivity, organic carbon content and plant biomass) for two grazing seasons using static chambers. The results showed that rotational grazing had a positive impact on plant biomass: minimize soil disturbance, reduce compaction and GHG emissions of the soil and increase water infiltration. Therefore, this practice has revealed clear benefits in terms of soil protection and climate change mitigation and adaptation.

Landscape complexity and functional groups moderate the effect of diversified farming on biodiversity: A global meta-analysis

Homogenisation and intensification of agricultural ecosystems are among the most important threats to biodiversity, linked to declines in pollinators, soil biota and ecosystem functioning. Diversification has been proposed as a way to restore ecosystem functioning in agricultural landscapes. To manage agricultural land for multiple ecosystem functions, evidence is needed of the effect of diversification on functionally distinct taxa. We contribute to closing this knowledge gap through a global meta-analysis of 161 peer-reviewed articles addressing the abundance and richness of six distinct functional groups: autotrophs, decomposers, natural enemies, pests, pollinators, and other. We found diversified farming systems increased overall species richness by 26% on average, relative to simplified farming systems. However, the effect of diversified farming on the overall mean abundance was weak. Our study shows diversified farming systems enhanced the abundance and richness of beneficial species while reducing the abundance of pests (e.g., weeds, herbivores), thus providing benefits for both agricultural production and biodiversity. The positive effect of diversified farming systems on the overall mean species richness was stronger in farms in more simplified landscapes, i.e., those that are further from natural and semi-natural habitats or have a lower proportion of seminatural vegetation in a 1 km radius. Pollinator’s abundance and richness were highest in diversified farming plots located far away from natural and semi-natural habitats. In contrast, proximity to these natural and semi-natural habitats (<250 m) increased the positive effect of diversified farming systems on natural enemies’ abundance, while reducing the number of pests. Our results add to the body of evidence calling for the repurposing of policies, regulations, and international agendas to promote, support and incentivize the adoption of diversified farming practices for supporting biodiversity. Spatial planning of diversification schemes should consider the landscape context of farms to ensure the greatest benefit of intervention.

Extent of adoption of diversified farming practices by tribal farmers of Madhya Pradesh

Agriculture is playing a vital role in Indian economy. Agriculture is the primary source of livelihood for the 58 per cent of the Indian peoples. In the country, 44.2 per cent workforce is employed in this sector for sustain their livelihood. It is life line of majority of the peoples. The present study entitled ‘Extent of Adoption of Diversified Farming Practices by Tribal Farmers of Madhya Pradesh’ was conducted in the Khargone district of Madhya Pradesh. The Khargone district comprises of total number of nine community development blocks (CDBs). Out of these, only one block i.e. Bhagwanpura was selected purposively from the district because this block was having maximum tribal population among other blocks of the district. The study was conducted with two types of tribal farmers i.e., specialized farming and diversified farming practicing tribal farmers. A total 200 tribal farmers, in which 100 specialized farming and 100 diversified farming practicing tribal farmers were selected through the snow ball random sampling method from the ten selected village Panchyats. The results revealed that all the variables i.e., age, educational, type of family, size of family, occupation, annual income, housing pattern, social participation, size of land holding, material possession, source of information utilization pattern, contact with extension personnel, scientific orientation, achievement motivation and risk orientation are found significant positively associated with adoption level of the tribal farmers who are involved in the diversified farming practices.

Achieving Food System Resilience Requires Challenging Dominant Land Property Regimes

Although evidence continues to indicate an urgent need to transition food systems away from industrialized monocultures and toward agroecological production, there is little sign of significant policy commitment toward food system transformation in global North geographies. The authors, a consortium of researchers studying the land-food nexus in global North geographies, argue that a key lock-in explaining the lack of reform arises from how most food system interventions work through dominant logics of property to achieve their goals of agroecological production. Doing so fails to recognize how land tenure systems, codified by law and performed by society, construct agricultural land use outcomes. In this perspective, the authors argue that achieving food system “resilience” requires urgent attention to the underlying property norms that drive land access regimes, especially where norms of property appear hegemonic. This paper first reviews research from political ecology, critical property law, and human geography to show how entrenched property relations in the global North frustrate the advancement of alternative models like food sovereignty and agroecology, and work to mediate acceptable forms of “sustainable agriculture.” Drawing on emerging cases of land tenure reform from the authors' collective experience working in Scotland, France, Australia, Canada, and Japan, we next observe how contesting dominant logics of property creates space to forge deep and equitable food system transformation. Equally, these cases demonstrate how powerful actors in the food system attempt to leverage legal and cultural norms of property to legitimize their control over the resources that drive agricultural production. Our formulation suggests that visions for food system “resilience” must embrace the reform of property relations as much as it does diversified farming practices. This work calls for a joint cultural and legal reimagination of our relation to land in places where property functions as an epistemic and apex entitlement.

Tobacco and Deforestation Revisited. How to Move towards a Global Land-Use Transition?

Articles 17 and 18 of the United Nations (UN) Framework Convention on Tobacco Control address the environmental sustainability of tobacco as a contested agricultural crop. They require regulatory land-use policies to be introduced and designed to enhance a sustainability transition to diversified farming practices and/or alternative livelihoods. Related activities of the UN Study/Working Group on Economically Sustainable Alternatives to Tobacco Growing are reviewed to assess and monitor the crop’s impact on natural resources with a focus on methods to identify tobacco-attributable deforestation (remote sensing, proxy values, secondary statistics, natural valuation, ecological/social surveys). It is posited that since 2007 no advances have been achieved in framing woody biomass destruction/degradation due to land extension and curing (i.e., drying green leaf using wood). Building on support by digital technologies and land surface monitoring systems, a novel post-2020 strategy is proposed to mainstream an extended set of indicators integratively, i.e., addressing biodiversity losses, soil carbon reservoirs and land degradation neutrality of tobacco as an agricultural crop. Thus, the point is emphasized that land stewardship requires political priority setting that makes the framing of land-use sustainability metrics more than a purely technical matter.

A global database of diversified farming effects on biodiversity and yield

With the Convention on Biological Diversity conference (COP15), United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP26), and United Nations Food Systems Summit, 2021 is a pivotal year for transitioning towards sustainable food systems. Diversified farming systems are key to more sustainable food production. Here we present a global dataset documenting outcomes of diversified farming practices for biodiversity and yields compiled following best standards for systematic review of primary studies and specifically designed for use in meta-analysis. The dataset includes 4076 comparisons of biodiversity outcomes and 1214 of yield in diversified farming systems compared to one of two reference systems. It contains evidence from 48 countries of effects on species from 33 taxonomic orders (spanning insects, plants, birds, mammals, eukaryotes, annelids, fungi, and bacteria) of diversified farming systems producing annual or perennial crops across 12 commodity groups. The dataset presented provides a resource for researchers and practitioners to easily access information on where diversified farming systems effectively contribute to biodiversity and food production outcomes.

The Impact of Diversified Farming Practices on Terrestrial Biodiversity Outcomes and Agricultural Yield Worldwide: A Systematic Review Protocol.

The expansion and intensification of agriculture have led to global declines in biodiversity. This paper presents a systematic review protocol to clarify under what management and landscape contexts diversified farming practices are effective at improving outcomes for terrestrial biodiversity, and potential trade-offs or synergies with agricultural yields. The systematic review will be developed following the Reporting Standards for Systematic Evidence Syntheses (ROSES). The review will include articles that compare levels of diversity (e.g., abundance, richness, Shannon’s diversity index) of any terrestrial taxon (e.g., arthropods, mammals) in diversified farming systems to levels in simplified farming systems and/or natural habitats, prioritising articles that also report agricultural yields. We will search for relevant peer-reviewed primary studies in two global repositories: Scopus and Web of Science, and among primary studies included in previous meta-analyses that are retrieved from the search. Full-texts of identified articles will be screened using a clear inclusion/exclusion eligibility criteria. All included articles will be assessed to determine their internal validity. A narrative synthesis will be performed to summarize, describe and present the results, and where the articles provide sufficient and appropriate data, we will conduct a quantitative meta-analysis.

Characterising the diversity and spatial differentiation of crop managements at a regional scale

Abstract Changes in agricultural land use over recent decades have exacerbated the pressures and impacts of agriculture on the environment. Researchers model these pressures and impacts using data on soils, climate and agricultural land use characteristics, which have to be represented at the spatial and temporal scales appropriate to the ecological or biophysical processes being studied. Representation of agricultural land use across large areas (several thousand of km2 or more) is hampered by lack of data on the diversity of farming practices and their spatial distribution, usually reduced to land cover. We propose in this article a methodological approach for combining generic and local information sources to characterise, across a large area, the diversity of crop managements and their spatial distribution, at a resolution appropriate to a specific environmental issue: assessment of nitrate contamination of groundwater. The approach involves four steps: (i) devise a system of spatial units that is appropriate to the research context and the available information sources, (ii) use multivariate analysis to characterise the diversity of crop managements obtained from a national database, (iii) conduct a survey, holding semi-directive interviews with experts and local actors to identify specific features that may locally modify this diversity, (iv) synthesise the statistical findings and survey results to establish a set of representative crop management types. Illustrated in connection with the problem of diffuse nitrogen pollution of groundwater in the Seine-Normandie basin in France, it enabled to describe 919 crop managements out of the 18 main crops in the basin and especially highlighted the high diversity of practices on wheat with more than 200 crop managements. The knowledge produced on the diversity of crop managements and their spatial distribution was used for environmental modelling.

Inorganic fertilizer use efficiency of millet crop increased with organic fertilizer application in rainfed agriculture on smallholdings in central Senegal

Much effort has been spent on formulating guidelines for inorganic fertilizer use in millet crops in Sub-sahelian farms. However, these guidelines do not take into account the diversity of manuring practices. In this study we analyzed over two years (2016–2017) the use efficiency of an inorganic NPK fertilizer as affected by the two most contrasted categories of organic manure strategies (OMS) found in millet fields of central Senegal. 19 farmers’ fields were selected in a village typical of that region, 11 and 8 of which respectively corresponding to categories OMS1 and OMS2 as follows: OMS1, locally referred to as Homefields, were fields continuously cropped with millet over the last 15 years, having received organic manure regularly in the past, and manured again at the onset of the 2016 rainy season. OMS2 fields locally referred to as Outfields, were not manured in 2016 and were rarely manured in the past. Four of them were continuously cropped with millet and the others had followed a triennial millet-peanut-fallow rotation. In 2017, no manure was applied in any of the OMS1 or OMS2 fields. A pairwise treatments with and without the same inorganic fertilizer dose was applied in each field in both 2016 and 2017 cropping seasons. In 2016, the higher the manure application, the higher the use efficiency of the inorganic fertilizer applied. The use efficiency of the inorganic N was most closely related to soil bulk density and P availability. In 2017, with no new manure amendment, millet yield in OMS1 was about three times higher than in 2016. It was close to the water-limited yield, suggesting that the residual effect of the manure applied in 2016 was high. The use efficiency of the inorganic N was generally low under these conditions. In OMS2, millet yield and use efficiency of inorganic fertilizer remained low in both years. The crop rotation with peanuts did not enrich the soil compared to the millet returning every year, but it reduced Striga hermontica infestation and increased the millet 1000-grain weight. The methodological approach developed here may help in formulating guidelines to deal with the diversity of farming practices in Sub-sahelian villages.

Biogas reduces the carbon footprint of cassava starch: a comparative assessment with fuel oil

In the past 10 years, 90% of cassava starch factories in Thailand have switched from fuel oil to renewable biogas, to cover part of their energy needs. The environmental benefits of switching to biogas have not been assessed quantitatively. To alleviate this, this study assessed 100-year greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, or carbon footprint (CF), of cassava starch production for four factories in Thailand. Key results demonstrate that biogas reduces the carbon footprint of the Thai cassava starch industry as a whole by 0.9–1.0 million tons CO2eq/year, and highlight methodological precautions to collect LCI data and allocate GHG emissions between co-products with high moisture contents. The system boundaries included farm stage (production of cassava roots), transportation to factory and processing into native starch. The functional unit (FU) was one ton of native cassava starch at 13% water content. Biogas produced from the factory wastewater (95–200 m3/FU) was the main source of thermal energy for starch drying, and for on-site electricity production when excess biogas was available. The total CF of cassava starch was in the range 609–966 kg CO2eq/FU. Agricultural production contributed 60% of the carbon footprint, mainly from the use of nitrogen fertilizers. GHG emissions of root production varied widely due to (1) the diversity of farming practices even within a small radius (50 km), and (2) different agricultural yields in different regions. The contribution of the factory stage to the carbon footprint depended on the use of electricity, biogas and other fuels, ranging from 217 to 342 kg CO2eq/FU. Allocation rules such as wet weight or dry weight basis allocations affected the results markedly.

Climate change, cocoa migrations and deforestation in West Africa: What does the past tell us about the future?

Cocoa farming has been a major driver of deforestation in West Africa, notably in Cote d’Ivoire, the world’s leading cocoa producer. Cocoa has been a “pioneer crop” that was grown after forest clearing, and instead of replanting aging plantations, farmers usually migrated to the forest frontiers to establish a new cocoa farm. During the second half of the twentieth century, the cocoa frontier moved from the drier east to the wetter southwest of the country, fueled by massive immigration of prospective cocoa farmers from the savanna. It has been argued that the climate gradient was a major driver of these east–west migrations and that cocoa farmers, by replacing forest with farm land over vast areas, contributed to the further drying of the climate in a positive feedback cycle. If this were the case, then a hotter and drier future climate would likely continue to push cocoa farmers into the wetter southwest of the sub-continent, with the last forest reserves of southwestern Cote d’Ivoire and Liberia as the only remaining destinations. Based on an analysis of long-term rainfall measurements in major cocoa growing areas of Cote d’Ivoire and interviews with cocoa farmers about their history and motives of migration, we argue that climate and drought have been supporting factors, but not usually the main drivers of cocoa migrations, which were mostly a response to the perceived availability of forest land for planting. We also show that the observed decrease in rainfall in the cocoa regions during the 1970s and 1980s was not primarily a response to local deforestation related to cocoa farming, although deforestation may have caused microclimatic changes. Climate extremes like the 1982/3 drought have also triggered adaptations of farming practices like replanting and crop diversification. To prevent cocoa farming from continuing to act as a driver of deforestation in a hotter climate, governments and supply chain actors should discourage forest frontier dynamics and should help cocoa farmers adapt to environmental change by adopting more intensive and diversified farming practices, building on farmers’ own risk mitigation and adaptation strategies.

Ecosystem Services in Biologically Diversified versus Conventional Farming Systems: Benefits, Externalities, and Trade-Offs

We hypothesize that biological diversification across ecological, spatial, and temporal scales maintains and regenerates the ecosystem services that provide critical inputs-such as maintenance of soil quality, nitrogen fixation, pollination, and pest control-to agriculture. Agrobiodiversity is sustained by diversified farming practices and it also supplies multiple ecosystem services to agriculture, thus reducing environmental externalities and the need for off-farm inputs. We reviewed the literature that compares biologically diversified farming systems with conventional farming systems, and we examined 12 ecosystem services: biodiversity; soil quality; nutrient management; water-holding capacity; control of weeds, diseases, and pests; pollination services; carbon sequestration; energy efficiency and reduction of warming potential; resistance and resilience to climate change; and crop productivity. We found that compared with conventional farming systems, diversified farming systems support substantially greater biodiversity, soil quality, carbon sequestration, and water-holding capacity in surface soils, energy-use efficiency, and resistance and resilience to climate change. Relative to conventional monocultures, diversified farming systems also enhance control of weeds, diseases, and arthropod pests and they increase pollination services; however, available evidence suggests that these practices may often be insufficient to control pests and diseases or provide sufficient pollination. Significantly less public funding has been applied to agroecological research and the improvement of diversified farming systems than to conventional systems. Despite this lack of support, diversified farming systems have only somewhat reduced mean crop productivity relative to conventional farming systems, but they produce far fewer environmental and social harms. We recommend that more research and crop breeding be conducted to improve diversified farming systems and reduce yield gaps when they occur. Because single diversified farming system practices, such as crop rotation, influence multiple ecosystem services, such research should be holistic and integrated across many components of the farming system. Detailed agroecological research especially is needed to develop crop- and region-specific approaches to control of weeds, diseases, and pests. © 2012 by the author(s).

The Social Dimensions of Sustainability and Change in Diversified Farming Systems

Bacon, C. M., C. Getz, S. Kraus, M. Montenegro, and K. Holland. 2012. The social dimensions of sustainability and change in diversified farming systems. Ecology and Society 17(4): 41. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-05226-170441

Farming Differentiation in the Rural-urban Interface of the Middle Mountains, Nepal: Application of Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) Modeling

This article investigates the dominant factors of farming differentiation in the rural-urban interface of the densely populated Kathmandu valley using analytic hierarchy process (AHP). Rural-urban interface of Kathmandu valley is an important vegetable production pocket supplying a large amount in the city core. While subsistence farming in the rural area is characterized traditional farming integrating livestock, forestry with agriculture; intensification in the urban fringe is characterized by triple crop rotations, intensive vegetable production and market oriented modern farming. Seven factors which were supposed to cause farming variation in the interface were incorporated in the AHP framework and were subjected to farmers’ judgment in distinctly delineated three farming zones. These factors played crucial yet different roles in different farming zones. Inaccessibility and use of local resources; higher yield and accessibility and agro-ecological consideration and quality production are the key impacting factors towards subsistence, commercial inorganic and smallholder organic zones respectively. The quantification of the impacting factors of farming differentiation through AHP is an important piece of information that will contribute to modeling farming in the rural-urban interface in developing countries which represent diversity of farming practices and rapidly changing land use pattern.

AGRICULTURAL EXPOSURE HISTORY AMONG AFRICAN-AMERICAN FARMERS IN GEORGIA

Agricultural exposures differ across the United States by region, calendar time period, and agricultural practice, but most of the published literature focuses on white men in the Midwest. A pilot study was conducted to explore the breadth and diversity of farming practices over time among African-American farmers in Georgia whose exposures may differ in important ways. Using a comprehensive life events calendar questionnaire, 17 male African-American farmers aged 36 to 86 yr residing in southeastern Georgia were interviewed regarding their agricultural history in July 1997. Most men (15/17) reported working on multiple farms in their lifetime; 3 men worked on 5 different farms during their lifetime. These farmers reported using more chemicals during their lifetime than farmers in the Midwest. Used motor oil was the most frequently reported insecticide applied to animals; this apparently common practice has not been described in the literature and should be better understood since its use may result in dermal exposure to polyaromatic hydrocarbons. Better characterization of regionally specific farming history and individual farming practices will facilitate studies of the health effects of farming.