Diurnal Time Budget Research Articles

Diurnal Activity Patterns of Burchelli Zebra (Equus burchelli) in Captivity at Zoological Garden, Alipore, Kolkata, India

A study was conducted on the diurnal behavioural pattern and activity time budget of a captive female burchelli zebra (Equus burchelli) in the Zoological Garden, Alipore, West Bengal, India, from 10.00 to 17.00 h between October 2022 to June 2023including winter and summer seasons by using focal sampling method with 25,200 minutes of observations. Data were analyzed by assessing mean time spent percentage for different activities in different hours and different seasons. Differences in the seasonal and hourly time budget were tested using one-way ANOVA, followed by DMRT. Grazing was dominant with significantly (P<0.05; DMRT) maximum time spent, followed by standing, feeding of offered feed, resting and then locomotion during both the seasons. Between seasons, significantly higher (P<0.05; DMRT) grazing (32.72%±0.92), walking (7.58%±0.77) and sleeping (7.18%±0.24) behaviours were observed during summer, while the other activities during the winter. During summer, from 12:00-13:00 h, grazing was the lowest, while resting was most. During winter, resting was more in the 1st hour of observation. The zebra devoted 2.12% to 2.21% of their time towards vigilance behaviour which was with higher rate during winter. This individual-based behavioural study on captive zebra will be useful for taking a well comprehensive management plan to ensure its successful in-situ conservation as well as its welfare.

Habitat use and diurnal activity budget of blue bulls (Boselaphus tragocamelus) in the Lumbini Heritage Site, Nepal

Blue bulls (Boselaphus tragocamelus) in Nepal are found near human settlements, crop fields and forest patches of lowland Terai and their management is becoming challenging due to conflicts with locals. This study explored habitat use and diurnal activity pattern of blue bulls at the Lumbini Heritage Site (LHS), one of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites from Nepal between 29 February and 31 March 2022. The habitat availability was quantified from classified land use land cover data of 10 m resolution and habitat use of the blue bulls was studied by direct observation. Activities of the blue bulls were recorded by the focal animal sampling method to determine the diurnal time budget for three observational phases 7:00–10:30 AM, 10:30–2:00 PM, and 2:00–5:30 PM; morning, afternoon and late-afternoon, respectively. The behavioral states recorded were grazing, locomotion, resting, alert and other activities (running, fighting, etc.). A total of 73 individuals of blue bulls were recorded along the 20 line transects each of 200–300 m in length. The majority of the blue bull individuals (52.05%) were observed in grassland that occupied only 7.14% of the LHS while lesser were found in dense forests (44.44% of the LHS) and agricultural land. Blue bulls spent the majority of their diurnal time on feeding followed by resting and locomotion. Feeding peaked during the morning and late-afternoon observational phases when the temperature was low whereas resting was the major activity in the afternoon. Because the grasslands are the most used habitats by blue bulls in the LHS, especially for feeding, we emphasize the proper management of the grasslands.

Time Budget and Activity Pattern of Capped Langur (Trachypithecus pileatus) in Barail Wildlife Sanctuary, Assam, India

Time allocations for different activities of Capped langurs are depending on the environmental and habitatconditions. We observed time budgeting of Capped langurs for various activities on daily, monthly, seasonaland yearly basis from January 2017 to December 2019 in Barail Wildlife Sanctuary of Assam, India. Focalanimalsampling technique was used to record the diurnal active time spent by T. pileatus for differentactivities. From the observation it has been found that langur spent maximum time for resting (45%) followedby feeding (34%), locomotion (11%), grooming (5%) and others activity (5%). The amount of time allocatesfor different activities throughout the months was significantly different (F= 341.95, d. f = 4, P < 0.001).Time devoted to feeding was maximum in April (37%) and resting was 50% in August. In seasonal variation,it spent maximum (48%) time for resting in monsoon and lowest (41%) in winter. Highest (35%) feedingactivity was in winter and summer followed by lowest (32%) in monsoon and the seasonal variation of allthe activities was significantly varied. The diurnal time budget shows that it spent maximum (40.57%) timefor feeding in evening hours P < 0.001, while resting was highest (57.58%) between (10hrs-11hrs) andlowest (37.8%) in evening P < 0.001.

Time budgets and activity patterns of the southern gelada (Theropithecus gelada obscurus) in a human‐modified landscape, Wollo, Ethiopia

AbstractUnderstanding the behavioural ecology of primates in human disturbance areas is crucial to developing conservation management plan. Southern geladas (Theropithecus gelada obscurus) are endemic subspecies of geladas that are threatened by habitat loss and degradation in the Ethiopian Highlands. During the 18‐months period, we conducted this intensive study in an unprotected area of human‐modified landscape to examine the diurnal time budgets and activity patterns of southern geladas. We quantified the time budget data from a band of southern gelada using instantaneous scan sampling method. Southern geladas had an overall diurnal activity budget of 49.5% feeding, 17.5% resting, 16.2% moving, 13.0% grooming and 3.0% socialising. The band spent significantly more time feeding during the dry season than the wet season. However, the band spent significantly more time during the wet season than the dry season in resting and grooming activities. We observed variations in the trend of activity patterns during the daylight hours between the wet and dry seasons. We found consistent relationships between monthly time budget and food availability. Our results contribute to improve our knowledge on the behavioural ecology of gelada populations in human‐modified landscape across the Ethiopian Highlands.

Ecology and behavioral response of Ruddy Shelduck (Tadorna ferruginea) in the wetland complex of Oued Righ valley (Algerian Sahara).

The wetland complex of Oued Righ valley accommodates a population of Ruddy Shelduck (Tadorna ferruginea) between 2012 and 2014, the total reached 80 individuals in the Lake Hamraia where the species wintering. The analysis of the diurnal time budget of wintering populations revealed the role of feeding area delivery for this species and they devoted their day time to feeding (51.2%), sleeping (18.8%), followed by swimming activity (6.3 %), and courtship activities with flying (2.03%) which often occurs after disturbances caused by human or by Marsh harrier (Circus aeruginosus). It is interesting to study the behavior of these ducks in Saharan bioclimatic area and follow the phenology and characteristics in order to preserve the biodiversity in this region.

Population Fluctuation and Diurnal Time Budgeting of White-Headed Duck (Oxyura Leucocephala) During Winter at Garaet Hadj Tahar (Skikda, North East Algerian)

This study was focused on the ecology and behavior of the White-headed Duck (Oxyura leucocephala) at Garaet Hadj Tahar (Guerbes-Sanhadja, North East of Algeria). Sampling was carried out during two wintering seasons (2017-2018 and 2018-2019). High number of this duck was recorded in 2018/19 (350 individuals). We observed two Oxyura population, the first sedentary, and the second, hosted the Garaet during the wintering season. Diurnal time budget was dominated by the comfort activities the sleeping with a rate of 39.13%. Following by swimming (37.76%), feeding (17.59%) grooming (4.58%), courtship ritual (0.56%) and flying (0.38%). The feeding of white-headed duck is done exclusively by diving. Beside, this waterbird associated between Feeding by diving and grooming in order to minimized energy. The accessory activities such as: courtship ritual, flying were done by this duck at the end of wintering. This results confirm that Garaet Hadj Tahar is considered as wintering site for this threatened species. Biological Conservation plan (BCP) must be applied at level of this wetland in order to manage bioressources and threatened waterbirds.

Day long Activities of Indian Blue Peafowl in Bangladesh National Zoo

The research work was carried out from July 2016 to June 2017 to explore the day long activities of Indian Blue Peafowl habitat at Bangladesh National Zoo. The objectives of the study were to understand the biological activities that happen in a day of this nice creature across different season. For this purpose we gave selected equal number of (n= 10) adult peacocks and peahens. . Total day time used by several activities in winter was found 10.51 hour. Peacock spent most of their diurnal time budget (28.10%) in resting state in winter .Feeding and displaying time was 1.74 hour and 1.25 hour respectively of the total day time .Without this percentage of preening time and walking time spent by the Peacock was 11.99 hour and 17.32 hour in winter. Resting, feeding and walking time spent by the Peahen are 3.02 hour, 2.25 hour and 2.03 hour respectively in winter. Roaming time Peahen is lower 0.88 hour than displaying time of Peacock. In the spring, the total time of several biological activities of Peafowl was found 11.54 hour. Resting time, walking time, displaying time and feeding time were 3.10 hour, 1.98 hour, 1.94 hour and 1.85 hour respectively in spring for Peacock. The percentage of resting and feeding time was higher compare to other two seasons and it was 28.34 and 21.66 hour of diurnal time budget for Peahen in spring. Roaming time was found 9.36% of the total day time and time of walking in the day was 2.08 hour for Peahen in spring. Total day time was found 13.15 hour in summer spent by the Indian blue peafowl in several activities. In the summer day time is long so all activities take more time compared to others seasons. Time spent on various behaviours by peacocks during day time in summer resting time, displaying time, feeding time and walking time were 26.92%, 16.65%, 16.05% and 16.20%, respectively. In summer the Peahen spends more time (3.55 hour) in resting and less time (0.83 hour) in calling and a big percentage of time 18.40, 17.64 and 13.92 were spent by the Peahen in summer for walking, feeding and roaming respectively. Resting, walking and feeding time was found higher in summer season because day length is more comparing to winter and spring season. Roosting and preening time are same 1.10 hour for Peahen in summer. Resting time is the highest and calling time is the lowest for Peacock and Peahen in all seasons. In conclusion we can say that day long activities vary based on season and sex

Diurnal feeding strategies of the Ferruginous Duck (Aythya nyroca) in Lake Tonga (Northeastern Algeria)

Abstract Although the Ferruginous Duck (Aythya nyroca) has thoroughly been studied, the foraging behaviour of this species is still not completely known. In the present paper we studied the diurnal feeding behaviour of ducks. We monitored the annual cycle of birds through two fieldtrips per month. The instantaneous behaviour of birds was recorded in regular 30-minute intervals from 7 a.m. to 4:30 p.m., amounting a total of 456 observation hours. Food searching activity corresponds to a quarter of the total diurnal time budget of the Ferruginous Duck. Foraging behaviour was classified into five categories dominated by the “diving”, which is almost 45.61% of the total search time. Foraging activities at the water surface considered to be secondary activities, including feeding by “bill”, “neck and head”, and “beak and head” in a rate of 19.86%, 14.53%, and 13.98%, respectively. The “toggle” remains a minor activity and represents only 5.99% of foraging time. The feeding behaviour of this species correlated to several environmental parameters (rainfall, temperature and wind velocity), and linked to the group size of ducks visiting the lake. Regarding the food intensity, our results show the highest values for “bill and head” behaviour. “Diving” has the longest feeding interval (16.16±14.1 minutes), while foraging by “bill” has the shortest (0.69 ± 0.48 minutes).

Are diurnal time-budgets and activity patterns density-dependent in the Shelduck (Tadorna tadorna) wintering in Algeria? An analysis across multiple temporal scales

BackgroundThe Shelduck (Tadorna tadorna) is a characteristic waterbird species of inland wetlands in northeastern Algeria. Its wintering behavior in relation to changes of local abundances and foraging group density is poorly known.ObjectivesThis study aims at monitoring patterns of diurnal activities and the variation of behavioral time-budgets in relation to numbers of wintering Shelducks. We investigate temporal variations of diurnal activities across multiple-time scales and consider their interrelationships.MethodsAssessments of local population abundance were weekly surveyed during two wintering seasons (2010–2012), whereas diurnal activities (feeding, sleeping, swimming, preening, loafing, flying, courtship, and antagonism) were studied three times a month during seven hours (08:00–16:00) using the Scan method. Time budget variations of each behavioral activity were tested using nested ANOVAs following multiple time scales. Generalized linear mixed-effects models (GLMM) tested whether variations in diurnal activities were density-dependent.ResultsDuring the wintering season, Shelduck’s numbers followed a bell-shaped trend, which indicated that the species was typically a wintering migrant in Sabkha Djendli. The first individuals arrived onsite in October–November then numbers reached a peak in January (up to 2400 individuals in 2012) with steady density during December–February, afterward individuals left the site progressively until late April when the site is deserted. During both wintering seasons, diurnal activities were dominated by feeding (60%), followed by sleeping (12%) then swimming and preening with 9% and 8%, respectively. The rest of the activities (loafing, flying, courtship and antagonistic behaviors) had low proportions of time budget. ANOVAs showed that activity time budgets varied significantly following multiple time scales (year, season, month, day, semi-hour). Time budgets of diurnal activities during each wintering season were significantly interrelated. Correlations patterns between the two seasons were similar. GLMMs revealed that the variations of diurnal activities were not density-dependent, except for preening and swimming.ConclusionDuring the wintering season, habitats of Sabkha Djendli are important for waterbirds, including the Shelduck that used the lake mainly for food-foraging and resting. The 2400 individuals censused in mid-winter are important locally and at the North African scale. This stresses the need to strengthen the protection status of this wetland and mitigate degradation sources that threaten wintering waterfowl.

Status And Effects Of Food Provisioning on Ecology of Assamese Monkey (Macaca Assamensis) In Ramdi Area of Palpa, Nepal

The population status of Assamese monkey (Macaca assamensis) (McClelland 1840) and its interaction with the local people is poorly documented in Nepal. In 2014, we studied the population status, diurnal time budget and human-monkey conflict in Ramdi, Nepal by direct count, scan sampling and questionnaire survey methods, respectively. Two troops of Assamese monkey having total population of 48 with the mean troop size of 24 individuals were recorded in the study area. The group density was 0.33 groups / km² with a population density of 6 individuals/ km². The male to female adult sex ratio was 1:1.75 and the infant to female ratio was 0.85. The provisioned troop of Assamese monkey in Ramdi spent less time in feeding and movement while higher time was invested in resting and grooming than the nonspecific populations in the wild habitats. The human-monkey conflict is high in Ramdi, primarily due to the crop-raiding from fields and even the storage; the major crops raided are maize, vegetables, pulses and fruits. The higher reproductive success in terms of infant to adult female ratio, increased human-monkey conflicts and lesser investment of the diurnal time in foraging and feeding by Assamese monkey troop of Ramdi might be associated with the food provisioning. Journal of Institute of Science and TechnologyVolume 22, Issue 2, January 2018, Page: 183-190

Automated Sound Recognition Provides Insights into the Behavioral Ecology of a Tropical Bird.

Computer-assisted species recognition facilitates the analysis of relevant biological information in continuous audio recordings. In the present study, we assess the suitability of this approach for determining distinct life-cycle phases of the Southern Lapwing Vanellus chilensis lampronotus based on adult vocal activity. For this purpose we use passive 14-min and 30-min soundscape recordings (n = 33 201) collected in 24/7 mode between November 2012 and October 2013 in Brazil’s Pantanal wetlands. Time-stamped detections of V. chilensis call events (n = 62 292) were obtained with a species-specific sound recognizer. We demonstrate that the breeding season fell in a three-month period from mid-May to early August 2013, between the end of the flood cycle and the height of the dry season. Several phases of the lapwing’s life history were identified with presumed error margins of a few days: pre-breeding, territory establishment and egg-laying, incubation, hatching, parental defense of chicks, and post-breeding. Diurnal time budgets confirm high acoustic activity levels during midday hours in June and July, indicative of adults defending young. By August, activity patterns had reverted to nonbreeding mode, with peaks around dawn and dusk and low call frequency during midday heat. We assess the current technological limitations of the V. chilensis recognizer through a comprehensive performance assessment and scrutinize the usefulness of automated acoustic recognizers in studies on the distribution pattern, ecology, life history, and conservation status of sound-producing animal species.

Time budget patterns and complementary use of a Mediterranean wetland (Tonga, North-east Algeria) by migrant and resident waterbirds

We carried out a quantitative description of the use of a Mediterranean wetland (Tonga, North-east Algeria) by 22 waterbirds species (11 residents and 11 Palaearctic migrants) during late summer-wintering period, also analyzing their species-specific diurnal time budgets and the main related features of the landscape. The analyses of similarity in time budgets across birds (Hierarchal Cluster Analysis) showed four clusters of species associated with four major activities: day time mostly feeding (11 species), sleeping (6), swimming (3) and resting (2). Residents (Herons and Rails) showed a higher feeding time when compared to migrants (diving ducks, Gulls and Cormorants). From late summer to winter the time budget activity change in migrants; in contrast residents behave uniformly among daytime and at the course of the season. The use of this natural wetland in a complementary way by a high number of waterbirds (residents and migrants), is principally promoted by the existing of numerous habitat types. We found that 3 main ecological units, open water body, mudflats, and flooded meadows were the most utilized as foraging habitats among grebes, rails, ducks, gulls, and herons. In contrast, floating-leafed vegetation, and tall emergent vegetation were the commonest habitat categories used in resting activities especially by cormorants and herons. Data on behaviour requirements of these waterbirds can be used for conservation and correct management of this and other Mediterranean coastal wetlands.

Diurnal and Nocturnal Activity Time Budgets of Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus) in a Zoological Park

Diurnal and Nocturnal Activity Time Budgets of Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus) in a Zoological Park

Activity Budget and Drey Building of Free-Ranging Grizzled Giant Squirrel

Ratufa macroura dandolena is one of the three distinct sub-species of Giant Squirrels present in Sri Lanka and it is the smallest of the Giant Squirrels in the world. They are being threatened due to habitat loss from deforestation for agricultural, residential and commercial purposes. Activity budgeting is an essential component to form an effective conservation and management system. We conducted six months of study between June and September 2014 and between December 2014 and March 2015 using focal animal sampling techniques to gather behavioral data. Field visits were made three days per week, during the study period and point samples on an individual were recorded at five-minute intervals. Observations on dreys were opportunistically conducted during field visits. The study took place in areas of disturbed regenerating forest within the premises of the Rajarata University in Mihintale. Data collection was done between 07:00 and 17:00 hrs. Grizzled Giant Squirrels were mostly involved in feeding during the period of observation (45.58%) and was least engaged in other activities (0.17%) namely branch shaking and watching the observer. They spent 29.57% in resting, 14.34% in locomotion, 3.73% in intraspecific activities, 1.53% in grooming, 0.73% in communicatory behavior and 4.32% in drey related activities. Feeding mostly occurred from 07:00 to 10:00 hrs and 15:00 to 16:00 hrs according to the diurnal time budget. Majority of the resting was between 11:00 to 15:00 hrs. The walls of the dreys were made by Grewia sp. twigs and the inner floor using leaves of Mangifera indica. Dreys were about 45.95±0.35 cm in length, 30.9±0.56 cm in width, 14.85±0.21 cm in depth and 412.5±3.5 g in weight. We recommend further study of this species at other sites with different forest types to better understand its behavioral ecology and conservation needs. Particular emphasis should be given to studying this species at different altitudes. Keywords: Mammal, Rodent, Behavior, Giant Squirrel, Sri Lanka

Abundance and diurnal activity budget of sympatric Podicipedidae species at a Ramsar site in north-east Algeria

In order to evaluate the number of Podicipedidae and to monitor their diurnal behaviour for the first time in North Africa, bimonthly outings were conducted from September 2013 to August 2014 in Garaet Hadj-Tahar, a Ramsar site. The population size varied significantly between three investigated species. The peak numbers observed during the whole study period were 484 and 86 individuals of the Little Grebe and the Great Crested Grebe, respectively. These two species were present all year. The maximum for the Black-necked Grebe was 13 individuals observed during January 2014. This last species was a rare winter visitor to Garaet Hadj-Tahar. The analysis of the diurnal time budget revealed that feeding was the major activity of the Little Grebe and swimming was the major activity of the Great Crested Grebe. The latter devoted more time to preening, resting and parading than the former did. The total time spent for agonistic behaviour and flight accounted for a minimal budget for both species.

Diurnal time budget of breeding Black-necked Crane ( Grus nigricollis ) in Changthang, Ladakh, India

Diurnal time budget of breeding Black-necked Crane ( Grus nigricollis ) in Changthang, Ladakh, India

Distribution, breeding phenology and time budget of Ruddy Shelduck Tadorna ferruginea during the annual cycle in the Hauts Plateaux, north-east Algeria

Between September 2003 and July 2006, the reproductive biology and time budget of the Ruddy Shelduck Tadorna ferruginea was studied in the wetland complex of Oum el Bouaghi, north-east Algeria. Our results indicate a marked post-breeding dispersal of the Ruddy Shelduck to the eastern Hauts Plateaux where more than 1 000 birds (one-third of the estimated north-west African population) may gather in autumn. Dispersal is again conspicuous at the end of the wintering period when most birds leave the area to return to their breeding grounds. In 2004 and 2005, successful nesting was recorded at five sites. In both years, territoriality was exhibited from March to June and broods, ranging from nine to 14 chicks (mean = 11.1 ± 1.8, N = 16), were recorded between 21 May and 7 July. We also monitored the diurnal time budget of the Ruddy Shelduck over a two-year period. Feeding, most intense in late autumn and winter, occupied 50.6% of the daily activities with a distinct gradual seasonal decrease coinciding with the start of the breeding period. Ruddy Shelduck relied more upon surface feeding in shallow waters but displayed flexibility of feeding behaviour when water level fluctuated.

湖北石首麋鹿昼间活动时间分配

为探讨性别、年龄和季节对麋鹿(<em>Elaphurus davidianus</em>)行为的影响,2006年9月-2007年10月,作者采用焦点取样法和瞬时记录法,将麋鹿昼间活动归为采食、饮水、运动、休息、警觉、其他行为等六大类型,每月 6-8 d 对湖北石首麋鹿国家级自然保护区麋鹿种群的昼间活动时间分配进行了跟踪观察。 结果表明:麋鹿有晨、昏两个采食高峰和一个午间休息期,各种行为类型所占比例依次是:休息 53.40% (± 5.59%)、采食 22.36 (± 8.34%)、运动 11.23% (± 0.63%)、警觉 5.03% (± 1.76%)、其他行为 4.42% (± 2.06%), 饮水 2.65%(± 0.74%)。不同季节, 时间分配变化明显。非参数 Kruskal Wallis <em>H</em> 检验结果显示(n=120),季节、年龄和性别显著影响麋鹿的活动时间分配。除运动行为 (χ² =16.856, <em>d_f</em>=3, <em>P</em>>0.05)和饮水行为 (χ²=7.667, <em>d_f</em>=3, <em>P</em> >0.05)无显著差异外, 采食 (χ² =15.657, <em>d_f</em> =3, <em>P</em> <0.01)、休息 (χ² =13.173, <em>d_f</em>=3, <em>P</em> <0.01)、警觉 (χ²=13.887, <em>d_f</em>=3, <em>P</em> <0.01)和其他行为 (χ²=16.317, <em>d_f</em>=3, <em>P</em><0.01) 在不同季节所占时间百分比均有极显著差异。对不同性别年龄组的活动时间分配采用两个独立样本的 Mann-Whitney <em>U</em> 检验, 各性别-年龄组间的运动行为所占时间比例有极显著差异 (<em>P</em><0.01), 雄鹿与雌鹿之间的警觉行为有极显著差异 (<em>P</em><0.01), 雄鹿花较多时间用于警觉。幼鹿与成年鹿及亚成年鹿之间的采食行为时间有极显著差异 (<em>P</em><0.01)。不同性别、年龄组在不同季节的昼间活动时间分配的差异采用方差(ANOVA)分析后发现:所有年龄组,夏季与冬季饮水、春季与夏季警觉均存在显著性差异(<em>P</em><0.01);成体和亚成体麋鹿,春季与冬季警觉、夏季与冬季运动均存在显著性差异 (<em>P</em> <0.01)。;To probe how sex, age and season influence the behavior of Père David's deer (<em>Elaphurus davidianus</em>), we studied the diurnal activity time budget of the Père David's deer in Hubei Shishou Milu National Nature Reserve, by using a focus sampling and instantaneous recording methods. We conducted observation for six to ten days each month from Sept. 2006 to Oct. 2007. The result showed that Père David's deer have crescent activity pattern: foraged mainly at dawn and dusk and took a break at noon. They spent the most of their time resting (53.40%), followed by feeding (22.36%), moving (11.23%), alertness (5.03%), drinking (2.65%), and others (4.42%). Season and age-sex classes significantly influenced the activity time budgets. A greater proportion of time was spent resting in summer (58%) and autumn (58%). Significant difference were found in feeding, rest, alert and other activities (<em>P</em><0.01) except in drinking and moving (<em>P</em>>0.05) among seasons. Only moving behavior showed an extremely significant difference (<em>P</em><0.01) and had no significant difference in rest (<em>P</em>>0.05) among age-sex classes. There was an extremely significant difference between the male deer and the female deer in alert behavior (<em>P</em><0.01) while the adult males spent more time on alert than the adult females. Adults and the sub-adults spent more time feeding and rest, while calves spent more time moving, and less time feeding and rest. According to the results of ANOVA analysis on the diurnal activity time budget of sex-age classes at different seasons, for all age classes, extremely significant difference were found in drinking both summer and winter, in alertness both spring and summer (<em>P</em><0.01). Moreover, for adult and subadult groups, there were extremely significant difference in alertness both spring and winter, in moving both summer and winter (<em>P</em><0.01).

Behavioural adjustment in response to increased predation risk: a study in three duck species.

Predation directly triggers behavioural decisions designed to increase immediate survival. However, these behavioural modifications can have long term costs. There is therefore a trade-off between antipredator behaviours and other activities. This trade-off is generally considered between vigilance and only one other behaviour, thus neglecting potential compensations. In this study, we considered the effect of an increase in predation risk on the diurnal time-budget of three captive duck species during the wintering period. We artificially increased predation risk by disturbing two groups of 14 mallard and teals at different frequencies, and one group of 14 tufted ducks with a radio-controlled stressor. We recorded foraging, vigilance, preening and sleeping durations the week before, during and after disturbance sessions. Disturbed groups were compared to an undisturbed control group. We showed that in all three species, the increase in predation risk resulted in a decrease in foraging and preening and led to an increase in sleeping. It is worth noting that contrary to common observations, vigilance did not increase. However, ducks are known to be vigilant while sleeping. This complex behavioural adjustment therefore seems to be optimal as it may allow ducks to reduce their predation risk. Our results highlight the fact that it is necessary to encompass the whole individual time-budget when studying behavioural modifications under predation risk. Finally, we propose that studies of behavioural time-budget changes under predation risk should be included in the more general framework of the starvation-predation risk trade-off.

Diurnal time budget of goitred gazelles (Gazella subgutturosa Güldenstaedt, 1780) in Xinjiang, China

It is considered that four factors influence ungulate activity budget: (a) seasonal biomass and quality, (b) temperature, (c) yearly life cycle, and (d) livestock movements and human activity. In order to test them, the diurnal time budget of goitred gazelles was studied using the focal sampling method in Xinjiang Province (China) during a two-year period (2007–2009). According to our results, in all seasons goitred gazelles spent more than half (up to 68.9%) of their daytime feeding on pastures, and more than one-third resting in spring, autumn, and especially summer (up to 42.1%); in winter their resting time decreased to 29.0% for males and 19.0% for females. Though other activities were very important in the gazelles’ lives, the diurnal time budget for these activities was low (<8.0%). Goitred gazelles showed a trimodal feeding activity in most seasons, and a bimodal in summer (females). Females in summer and males during rutting season devoted more significant time to other activities (suckling, moving, courting and agonistic behaviour). However, the portion of time was still notably lower than for feeding and resting.