Districts In Tanzania Research Articles

The establishment, persistence, and scaling of marine community-based natural resource management in four coastal districts in Tanzania

Community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) is common in most types of ecosystems that are characterized by common property practices. However, the emergence and spread of CBNRM has varied across geographies and contexts. This study explores factors that have enabled the modern emergence, persistence, and spread of marine CBNRM in four coastal districts in Tanzania. It also investigates how CBNRM—particularly local ownership and management of marine resources —is implemented and developed. It draws on a document review of the grey and scientific literature, and in-depth qualitative field work carried out in four coastal districts on mainland Tanzania. The field work involved 15 key informant interviews, 12 focus groups discussion, and participant observation, documenting the perceptions of resource users. The findings indicate that marine CBNRM – operationalized largely through local organizations called Beach Management Units (BMUs) – have strong support from local communities, but emerged, persist, and scaled largely through government and donor led initiatives. The local communities' strong desire to safeguard fisheries resources and reduce overexploitation, caused by illegal harvesting practices, promoted the quick expansion of BMUs, which in turn ensured the continuation of CBNRM. The positive experience and lessons learned from BMUs established early in the process encouraged the spread and ultimately scaling out of CBNRM. Expanding and sustaining marine CBNRM beyond its current form, which relies heavily on external support, will require innovative approaches that foster collective action, identify sustainable financing mechanisms, provide clarity in roles and responsibilities, and identify cost-effective and scalable CBNRM approaches.

Kimbu speakers’ attitudes toward language endangerment

This article is based on a study that assesses the attitudes towards language endangerment of Kimbu speakers, a minority language spoken in the Chunya and Sikonge Districts in Tanzania. The study used a descriptive approach to assess whether Kimbu speakers have developed negative attitudes towards their language, have ambivalent language loyalty and are indifferent about language transfer to children. Data for this study were collected through interviews with 50 Kimbu speakers. The study revealed that most of the Kimbu parents and younger generation are ambivalent and indifferent about their language, and they have developed negative attitudes towards it, claiming that it has no socio-economic and educational significance. Because of such a situation, they have ceased using it in most genuine and natural domains like home and other social functions in favour of other co-existing languages. The study concludes that the Kimbu language is relatively unsafe from endangerment. The recommendation is made that Kimbu speakers should be told of the importance of ethnic community languages and that they make a symbolic identity, therefore teaching their children the language and encouraging the use of it everywhere in the community will pave the way to positive attitudes, and ensure language vitality.

Species authentication in meat products sold in Kilosa District in Tanzania using HRM-enhanced DNA barcoding

Species authentication in meat products sold in Kilosa District in Tanzania using HRM-enhanced DNA barcoding

Patient’s willingness to pay for improved community health insurance in Tanzania

Globally, achieving universal health coverage remains significant challenge. Health insurance coverage in low- and middle-income countries is still low with only a few African countries managed to reach 50% coverage. This study aimed to investigate the factors influencing patients’ willingness to pay (WTP) for medication and various versions of the improved Community Health Insurance Fund (iCHF) in Tanzania. A facility-based cross-sectional study was conducted in all hospitals, health centres, and eight randomly sampled dispensaries, sampling participant from the queue, one out of every three patient based on their order of entry into consultation room, and interviewed 1,748 patients in Kilombero and Same districts in Tanzania. We used multi-stage Contingent Valuation Methods exploring data collected during client exit interviews. We employed a random utility model and estimated WTP through an ordered logit model. The independent variables were; patient’s gender, age, marital status, education, employment status, Non-Communicable Disease (NCD) status, health insurance status, and the type of healthcare facility level. Our findings revealed that most patients exhibited a WTP of an amount equivalent to the current iCHF premiums and would also be willing to pay for an augmented iCHF premium inclusive of additional medication coverage. Upon adjusting for demographic characteristics, we observed that patients enrolled in an insurance program or benefiting from user fee waivers demonstrated a lower WTP for medication, while those with non-communicable diseases (NCDs) and seeking care in private facilities exhibited a higher WTP. Furthermore, patients with a secondary education level or above generally displayed higher WTP for premiums. Conversely, patients enrolled in private insurance and availing user fee waivers, along with those accessing care in public facilities, demonstrated a lowered WTP for iCHF premiums. These results highlight the need for targeted interventions to address systemic deficiencies and improve access to medicines. Our conclusions is that policies considering NCD status, education levels and income status are important when designing health insurance schemes for the informal sector in Tanzania, with the goal of increasing uptake of CHF.

Evidence of Human-designated Antiretroviral (ARV) Drug Residues in Broiler Chicken, Domestic Pigs, and Animal Feeds in Tanzania.

Recent reports have indicated the use of antiretroviral (ARV) drugs to boost animal production in neighboring Uganda, with further reports of use in several African countries. This cross-sectional study was conducted in nine districts in Tanzania, and involved screening for the presence of three first-line ARVs (lamivudine, nevirapine, and efavirenz) residues in the muscle and blood of domestic pigs and broiler chickens, and in sampled animal feed and water. Residues were determined using liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The method involved calibration of the lower limit of quantitation (LLOQ) and limit of detection (LOD). ARVs were detected and quantified using the Multiple Reaction Monitoring (MRM) system. 131 (66.8%) of the 196 samples of muscle, blood, and animal feed were found to contain lamivudine residues, with the highest concentration detected in domestic pig blood and muscle (7.58mg/kg) and the lowest concentration (0.01 mg/kg) in broiler chicken feed. There was a significant relationship between the presence of lamivudine by sample type and sample origin (p=0.000). Nevirapine and efavirenz drugs were not detected in any of the collected samples. No ARV residues were detected in water samples (n=37). This study confirms the use of ARVs in animal production in Tanzania as evidenced by the presence of residues in animal feeds. We found lamivudine residues in domestic pigs and broiler chickens at concentrations higher than those recently reported in other East African studies. Farmers living with HIV may be using ARVs from their prescribed medications, which may lead to poor adherence and the emergence of drug resistance. Besides direct human and animal health issues, these residues in animal feeds and animal excreta can lead to environmental contamination leading to several negative impacts. We recommend a total ban on human-designated ARVs in animal production and advocate for comprehensive studies and monitoring systems across African countries to reveal potential societal and other reasons for their use and provide comprehensive solutions using One Health approaches.

‘ … You become a prisoner of your life’: A qualitative study exploring the experience of joint pain and accessing care in Hai, Tanzania

The increased prevalence of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) in recent years has led many Low- and Middle-Income Countries (LMICs), including Tanzania, to develop policies to manage their burden. Musculoskeletal (MSK) conditions, such as arthritis, account for 20% of all years lived with disability in LMICs, but the NCD strategies rarely address them. There is substantial research on the disruption MSK conditions cause to people's lives within High-Income Countries, but very little is known about the lived experiences in LMICs. We investigated the experience of MSK conditions in 48 in-depth qualitative interviews with participants from the Hai District in Tanzania, East Africa, all of whom had a MSK disorder (confirmed through clinical examination as part of a broader study). We found that loss of mobility and pain associated with MSK disorders severely limits people's everyday lives and livelihoods. Help from others, mainly those within a household, is necessary for most tasks and those with limited or no support experience particular problems. We found barriers to accessing care and treatment in the form of high direct and indirect (through travel) care costs within formal health services in Tanzania. We argue for increased attention to the growing problem of MSK disorders in LMICs and that this agenda should be driven by a patient-centred approach which designs services accessible to the target population and designed to recognise their embodied expertise.

Factors Influencing Data Utilization and Performance of Health Management Information Systems: A Case Study

The Healthcare Management Information System (HCMIS) is a comprehensive collection of data systematically gathered at healthcare institutions to fulfill the requirements for statistical information on medical services. This research aimed to assess the use of HCMIS information and identify the elements that impact the efficiency of the medical system at the district and primary medical institution levels in Tanzania as a case study. This research was conducted in 11 districts in Tanzania and included 115 healthcare institutions. It was cross-sectional research. The data were gathered via a semi-structured survey given to healthcare professionals at the institution and district stages. The information was then recorded utilizing an observational checklist. The researchers used an analytical technique for thematic content to combine and validate the replies and findings and gather essential data. 93 healthcare institution personnel and 13 district authorities were surveyed. Approximately 61% of the facility participants said they utilized the HCMIS information, but only 39% of the district participants acknowledged consistently analyzing HCMIS information. Out of the participants from nine districts, 68% said that they regularly get feedback on the quality of their work from authority figures monthly and quarterly. The patient workload was often shown to significantly impact the efficiency of staff members in data collection and administration. Insufficient analysis and subpar use of information were prevalent in most districts and healthcare institutions in Tanzania. Inadequate human and financial resources, absence of rewards and monitoring, and lack of standard processes for data handling significantly hindered the HCMIS efficiency in Tanzania.

Analysis of Costs of Inputs for Sunflower Production at Mkalama District in Tanzania

Analysis of Costs of Inputs for Sunflower Production at Mkalama District in Tanzania

Plant spatial configurations and their influences on phenological traits of cereal and legume crops under maize‐based intercropping systems

AbstractIntroductionIntercropping systems have a great potential for crop diversification thus increasing smallholder systems' resilience to climate change while improving soil health. However, optimal benefits associated with intercropping systems are rarely realised because of the interspecific competition for growth resources among the intercropped species.MethodologySix trials were established in the high and low rainfall agroecological zones of Babati district in Tanzania to assess how promising cropping systems with different plant spatial configurations would influence the phenological development of intercropped maize, bean and pigeonpea. Cropping systems under study included a sole maize system rotated with a pigeonpea‐bean intercrop dubbed Doubled‐up legume (DUL), maize‐pigeonpea system both with and without de‐topping, an innovation comprising double maize rows alternated with pigeonpea and beans (Mbili‐Mbili), maize‐pigeonpea system with two maize seeds sown within a 50 cm intra‐row space, a vertical‐architecture Meru H513‐pigeonpea system and a farmer practice.ResultsBranch formation was significantly higher in DUL than in maize‐based systems (p ≤ 0.05). Seasonal weather had upto 30% influence on pigeonpea flowering, with DUL having highest (p ≤ 0.05) flower production. The rate of pigeonpea branch and flower production in Mbili‐Mbili was stable across seasons relative to other maize‐pigeonpea systems. Doubled‐up legume and farmer practice had pigeonpea litter yield of between 1 and 2 t ha−1 which was at least 0.5 t ha−1 higher than in maize‐based systems (p ≤ 0.05). During the period preceding early maize reproductive stages, Mbili‐Mbili increased light interception by 30% and 63% compared to maize‐based systems and DUL, respectively. Maize toppings had higher (94%) P content than stover biomass that remained until harvest.ConclusionOverall, maize‐legume systems had higher intercropping efficacy than sole maize system, both in interception use efficiency, soil mulch cover, among other soil health benefits. Mbili‐Mbili and DUL also had increased phenological benefits on intercropped legumes however, the latter was prone to seasonal weather variability.

Examining climate trends and patterns and their implications for agricultural productivity in Bagamoyo District, Tanzania

Climate variability impacts various global challenges, including food security, biodiversity loss, water scarcity, and human well-being. However, climate patterns and trends and community perceptions at spatially-explicit levels have been minimally addressed. The spatial and temporal trends of climate conditions in Bagamoyo District in Tanzania were examined using historical (1983–2010) and projected (2022–2050) meteorological and climate model data, respectively. Community knowledge and experiences of past climate occurrences were included. The implications of projected climate change for regional agricultural production and food security were assessed. The study drew on empirical data obtained from household surveys conducted in seven villages in the district. Effectively, 309 households were randomly sampled across the villages to provide the perception of climate change and associated impacts on agriculture and livelihoods. Both qualitative and quantitative statistical techniques were employed to analyse the incidence, frequency, and intensity of regional extreme climate events. The meteorological and climate modelling data were subjected to trend analysis using the Mann–Kendall and Sen’s slope estimator tests, and the present and projected spatial and temporal trends of climatic variables in the region were analysed. The household-based questionnaire results were combined with climate modelling and the literature to determine the implications of climate change for regional agricultural production and food security. The results revealed that local knowledge and climate model data strongly concur on regional climate changes. Furthermore, the region is highly likely to experience increased warming and decreased precipitation at varying magnitudes. The shifts in climate trends and patterns are anticipated to greatly impact agricultural production, affecting livelihoods and hampering food security efforts. Recommendations include adopting context-specific measures and tailored strategies for enhancing resilience throughout the entire region.

Semiquantitative Risk Evaluation Reveals Drivers of African Swine Fever Virus Transmission in Smallholder Pig Farms and Gaps in Biosecurity, Tanzania.

African swine fever (ASF) has remained persistent in Tanzania since the early 2000s. Between 2020 and 2021, pig farms in twelve districts in Tanzania were infected with ASF, and ≥4,804 pigs reportedly died directly due to the disease with disruption to livelihoods. We conducted semiquantitative field investigations and rapid risk assessment (RRA) to understand the risk factors and drivers of ASF virus (ASFV) amplification and transmission in smallholder pig farms, and determine the gaps in biosecurity through hazard profiling, focus group discussions and expert opinion. Outbreaks were connected by road and aligned along the pig product value chain and reported in the northern, central, and southern parts of Tanzania. The patterns of outbreaks and impacts differed among districts, but cases of ASF appeared to be self-limiting following significant mortality of pigs in farms. Movement of infected pigs, movement of contaminated pig products, and fomites associated with service providers, vehicles, and equipment, as well as the inadvertent risks associated with movements of animal health practitioners, visitors, and scavengers were the riskiest pathways to introduce ASFV into smallholder pig farms. Identified drivers and facilitators of risk of ASFV infection in smallholder pig farms were traders in whole pigs, middlemen, pig farmers, transporters, unauthorized animal health service providers, and traders in pork. All identified pig groups were susceptible to ASFV, particularly shared adult boars, pregnant and lactating sows, and other adult females. The risk of ASF for smallholder pig farms in Tanzania remains very high based on a systematic risk classification. The majority of the farms had poor biosecurity and no single farm implemented all identified biosecurity measures. Risky practices and breaches of biosecurity in the pig value chain in Tanzania are profit driven and are extremely difficult to change. Behavioural change communication must target identified drivers of infections, attitudes, and practices.

Implication of Institutional Frameworks Governing Land Tenure Security in Social-Economic Dynamics: Experience from Iringa District in Tanzania

Purpose: The study aimed to examine the implication of institutional frameworks governing land tenure security in socioeconomic dynamics in the Iringa district. The study used the case of the Iringa district to investigate the institutional framework that provides implications for the governance of land tenure security in Tanzania. Methodology: The study employed phenomenography by collecting primary data from 16 key informants selected from village and district levels. Data from key informants were complemented by documentary review with perception considered deductively. Findings: Findings confirmed the existence of two principal institutional frameworks; the Land Act No. 5 of 1999 and the Village Land Act No. 4 of 1999. Nonetheless, bureaucracy, inadequate policy dissemination, and poverty emerged as primary causes of deviations in land policy implementation in the study area. This study concludes that the successful implementation of Tanzania's land policy in the Iringa District Council has significantly facilitated land tenure security through the issuance of a Certificate of Customary Right of Occupancy. Establishing a robust institutional framework and clear land use rules has been central to this success. However, challenges such as complex Certificate of Customary Right of Occupancy acquisition procedures, bureaucracy, inadequate policy dissemination, and prevalent poverty in rural areas have been identified as impediments. Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: The study was guided by Institutional Theory which describes the interaction of human beings with existing natural resources, the institution involves the regulation of formal rules from constitutions, status laws, and other legal frameworks controlling the interaction and relationship of human behavior. The study contributed to the theory by establishing the relationship between the organization and enforcement of policy and regulatory framework that governs land tenure. Also, the study recommends expanding the Certificate of Customary Right of Occupancy issuance, strengthening local land administration, simplifying land use regulations, facilitating easier access to Certificate of Customary Right of Occupancy especially for impoverished households, and implementing strategies to reduce bureaucracy and enhancing policy understanding at the grassroots level. These measures aim to enhance land tenure security and support sustainable development in rural communities.

Institutional Capacity of the Village Land Councils in Managing Land use Conflicts between Farmers and Pastoralists: across Case Analysis of the selected Districts in Tanzania

Institutional Capacity of the Village Land Councils in Managing Land use Conflicts between Farmers and Pastoralists: across Case Analysis of the selected Districts in Tanzania

Potentials and limitations of a food group-based algorithm to assess dietary nutrient intake of women in rural areas in Tanzania

The aim of this study was to evaluate the accuracy of nutrient intake assessment with the food group-based algorithm “Calculator of Inadequate Micronutrient Intake” (CIMI) in comparison to the established nutrition software NutriSurvey. Using Food Frequency Questionnaires and 24-h dietary recalls of 1010 women from two rural districts in Tanzania, 23 relevant typical Tanzanian food groups were identified and subsequently the dietary protocols assessed via CIMI algorithm were compared by bivariate correlations and Bland-Altman analysis with the results of the NutriSurvey software (reference) and were set in relation to blood biomarkers of 666 participants. CIMI and NutriSurvey calculations regarding macro- and micronutrient intakes were similar. The Bland-Altman analyses and correlation coefficients of energy (0.931), protein (0.898), iron (0.775) and zinc (0.838) confirm the agreement of both calculations. The food group based CIMI algorithm is a practical tool to identify the inadequacy of macro- and micronutrient intake at population level.

Influence of water access for livestock on pastoralists household income in semi-arid areas of Monduli district in Tanzania

Access to water is arguably the most crucial, yet underappreciated determinant of household income for pastoralist households in semiarid regions. This study examined the influence of water access for livestock on pastoralists’ household income in the semi-arid areas of Monduli District in Tanzania. The study employed a cross-sectional research design, in which primary data were collected using a semi-structured questionnaire from 367 randomly selected households. Quantitative data were analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20, whereby both descriptive statistics (frequencies and percentages) were determined. A multinomial logistic regression model was applied to examine the influence of water access to livestock on the household income of pastoralists. The findings indicate that household size (p=0.001) and levels of water access for livestock, namely medium (p=0.000) and high (p=0.006), influenced pastoralists’ household income, while maintaining a low level of water access for livestock as the reference category. The study concluded that the higher the level of water access for livestock, the higher is the household income. This study recommends that the Government of Tanzania and the Monduli District Council establish programs to boost pastoralist income by improving communal access to livestock water sources.

Assessment of Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices in relation to Mycotoxin Contamination in Tanzania

This study assessed the knowledge, attitude, and practices (KAP) of the population in three districts in Tanzania on issues related to mycotoxin contamination and exposure. The study employed a cross-sectional design. Data were collected using a questionnaire survey, which was administered to gather quantitative data in 180 randomly selected households in three districts of Tanzania. In addition, qualitative data were collected using key informant interviews (KIIs) of 12 purposively selected respondents and 6 focus group discussions (FGDs) of six to twelve participants. Quantitative data were analysed in SPSS version 20 for Windows 180 using descriptive statistics and a chi-square test. While the qualitative data were analysed in ATLAS.ti 8 for Windows. A majority of respondents (25.1%) had never heard of mycotoxins, 20.1% were not aware of how mycotoxins are acquired, and none (0%) of the respondents claimed to never become sick after eating moulded/contaminated crops. The majority, 14.5% and 2.8% of the respondents, were not aware of prevention measures for animals and humans from mycotoxins, respectively. Only 8.9% agree that they are at risk of getting mycotoxins, 14% agree that it is safe to eat contaminated food, and 52.5% do not discard the mycotoxins contaminated food. The majority, 81.6%, dry their crops on top of the floor or bare grounds, almost 42.5% do not sort their crops before storage, and 28.5% agree to consume the defective/sorted crops. Therefore, it is recommended that health education interventions to create awareness among the public should be a priority and should be integrated into the existing control strategies

Assessing prevalence of misperceptions in agricultural activities of smallholder farmers in Tanzania

Misperceptions in agriculture are challenging the adoption of agricultural technologies in African developing countries. Incorrect beliefs such as agricultural inputs have effects on soil, crop yields and human health, have led some smallholder farmers conduct traditional agriculture, resulting in low yields, of poor quality. This research studied prevalence of misperceptions among smallholders in Tanzania when dealing with agricultural inputs (fertilizers, pesticides and seeds). To accomplish this, agricultural extension officers in research areas were interviewed to learn inaccurate beliefs held by farmers which were then validated by agricultural experts through semi-structured interview to identify misperceptions; identified misperceptions helped to design a questionnaire with TRUE and FALSE statements, rated on a 5-point Likert scale, which was administered to 431 smallholders in four districts in Tanzania. Descriptive statistics helped to learn prevalence of misperceptions, regression analysis determined association of predictors on misperceptions. Results revealed respondents were confident with inaccurate beliefs while dealing with agricultural inputs which confirmed prevalence of misperceptions among smallholder farmers in pursuit of agricultural activities. To help smallholders adopt agricultural technologies, agricultural extension systems need to minimize associated misperceptions and adopt strategies that can help farmers access correct agricultural information. The essence is to improve yields, efficiency and profitability in agricultural sector.

Molecular Characterisation of Traditional Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) Populations from Nachingwea and Newala Districts in Tanzania

This study assessed the genetic diversity of 120 selected cashew plants from Nachingwea and Newala traditional cashew populations, comprising of 60 cashew plants from each population. Eight Simple Sequence Repeats (SSR) makers were used to ascertain the extent of genetic variation within and between the two traditional cashew populations. Genomic DNA extraction and Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) were performed using standard protocols. The results showed that all SSR markers were polymorphic. Average Polymorphic Information Content (PIC), heterozygosity, number of alleles per locus, allelic frequency and Shannon’s Index were 0.540, 0.721, 3.391, 0.666 and 0.649, respectively. Analysis of molecular variance results showed that genetic variation within populations was 88% while genetic variation between populations was 12%, implying gene flow between the populations. The results further showed that the two cashew populations are genetically diverse and that Nachingwea traditional cashew population was genetically more diverse than Newala population. High genetic variation observed in the cashew populations shows that they are suitable for use in cashew breeding programmes. Thus, conservation of traditional cashew populations is recommended

Gender differences in trachomatous scarring prevalence in a formerly trachoma hyperendemic district in Tanzania.

Trachoma is a chronic conjunctivitis caused by the bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis. Repeated infections lead to trachomatous conjunctival scarring which can progress to potentially blinding trachomatous trichiasis (TT). In trachoma hyperendemic conditions, women compared to men have an increased risk of scarring and TT, which can progress to blinding corneal opacification. This study determined if there were gender differences in scarring prevalence and severity when trachoma prevalence approaches elimination, in a formerly trachoma hyperendemic region. A cross-sectional prevalence study was conducted amongst adults age 15 years and older in Kongwa district, Tanzania in 2019. 3168 persons over age 15 years agreed to be examined and had at least one eye with a gradable image. Ocular photographs were graded for scarring according to a published four-step severity scale. Overall, about half of all study participants had scarring. However, more females (52.3%) had any scarring compared to males (47.2%), OR = 1.22 (95% CI = 1.05-1.43). For every year increase in age, there was a 6.5% increase in the odds of having more severe scarring (95% CI: 5.8%, 7.2%). Women were more likely than men to have severe scarring, OR 2.36 (95% CI: 1.84-3.02). Residence in a community with TF≥10% was associated with a 1.6-fold increased odds of any scarring. Overall scarring prevalence and more severe scarring prevalence was higher in females compared to males, even adjusting for age and community TF prevalence. The data suggest that processes occur that lead to women preferentially progressing towards more severe scarring compared to men.

Constrained cooking energy choices in Tanzania: why urban dwellers cling on dirty even where clean energy alternatives are accessible?

Purpose The purpose of this study is to examine households’ behavior towards dirty cooking energy utilisation in an environment where relatively higher accessibility to clean energy is noted. Although the low utilisation rate of clean energy can partly be attributed to utility gains anticipated in dirty energy mixes (DEMs) arising out of accessibility constraints, affordances and enablers, it is still unclear on the extend at which each of these contributes towards DEMs manifestation among the seemingly well-to-do households with higher levels of clean energy mixes (CEM) access. This study, therefore, hinges on scrutinising on this lower utilisation patterns despite a seemingly higher accessibility of CEMs, specifically liquified petroleum gases (LPG). Design/methodology/approach The study is based on a household’s survey that was carried out in 2018, reaching a sample of 393 households using questionnaires in four wards of the Kigamboni district in Tanzania. Subsequent analyses were descriptive as well as inferential based on binary logistic regression analysis where utilisation of DEMs was predicted for both the high and low social economic status (SES) households by incorporating accessibility constraints, affordances and enablers. Findings The results show, first, if one assumes energy stacking is not an issue, as households become more constrained towards CEMs utilisation, they shift towards DEMs suggesting that the overall effect is a substitution, and second, the complementarity effect ultimately outweighs the substitution effect as households do not shift from DEMs to CEMs rather stack multiple energy. DEMs flourish in this case study area because those with high income are among those in the lowest SES, and some of those with the highest SES are from among the lowest income category, and all of them end up with more DEMs because shifting towards CEMs require income to complement SES. Practical implications Policy-wise, removing hurdles in accessing CEMs such as LPG subsidy programme, gas stove provision to the poor, and enhanced LPG awareness will most likely benefits only those who do not stack energy in cooking while strategies targeting those at the lowest SES such as higher education attainment, empower women as a family decision maker, encourage co-occupancy to enlarge the household size and contain urban growth within certain perimeter will have a significant impact only if they raise both incomes and SES. Originality/value Despite of the dominance of DEMs for cooking such as charcoal and firewood in Tanzania, CEMs such as LPG, have emerged as complements or alternatives in the household energy basket. The utilisation of such CEMs is, however, still very low despite the accessibility, cost, environmental and health advantages they offer. Accessibility is not the only factor fuelling CEMs; a complementarity must exist between SES and income for the positive transition towards CEMs to be realised.