Distribution Of Pheasants Research Articles

Evaluation of some theoretical Habitat improvement actions in a Mediterranean area through observation of pheasant and red-legged partridge land uses

Red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa) and Pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) have suffered population declines in the last decades. Several researches have suggested that the decline is related to the habitat alterations in agricultural ecosystems caused by intensification of agricultural techniques and land abandonment. We evaluated habitat use and distribution of red-legged partridges pairs and cock pheasants in an estate that can be representative of most of the agricultural Mediterranean areas from 2007 to 2012 with particular attention to the effect of artificial Habitat Improvement Actions (HIAs) and other management options as supplemental feeding and hedgerows maintenance. We compared the habitat use with its availability and we analyzed the spatial distribution by comparing points with pheasant cocks and partridge pairs with random ones. HIAs were used more then their availability by both species and resulted to have an important role in their distribution as well as hedgerows. Feeders resulted to have a strong effect on pheasant distribution, but not on partridges pairs. Our results showed that habitat management could be a fundamental tool for game-birds conservation, however the effectiveness of the employment of artificial feeders need to be better clarified for red-legged partridges.

Evaluation of a Korean Pheasant Introduction in Missouri

We evaluated the success of releases of 4,172 South Korean pheasants (Phasianus colchicus karpowi) in the Missouri River bottom in west-central Missouri by measuring dispersal, breeding effort, brood production, and survival during and after the 5 release years, 1967-71. Dispersal of tagged pheasants released at 2 sites in 1970 averaged 2.9 km; the farthest movement was 24 km. A winter survey in 1972 indicated that distribution of pheasants in the area approximated the annual dispersal limits. High initial mortality of released birds was suggested by recoveries of tagged birds released in 1970. Substantial numbers of broods reported by landowners in annual surveys, and moderate crowing cock indices for 6 years following the last release indicate a reproducing population that is stabilizing at a low density. Lack of suitable nesting cover may be a factor limiting further growth of this population. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 41(4):616-623 In recent years land-use changes have altered the environment in a large part of Missouri, rendering it less suitable for native upland game populations. Despite these alterations much of the area appears to be potential pheasant range. Ring-necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus torquatus) were first introduced into Missouri in the early 1900's. From 1904 to 1933 an estimated 40,000 ringnecks were distributed by the Game and Fish Department (Bennitt and Nagel 1937:53). The disappearance of the bird convinced game biologists that with existing land-use trends and climatic conditions in Missouri the ring-necked pheasant could not reproduce and survive in sufficient numbers to sustain hunting except in the northwest counties (Fig. 1). In 1958 the Department of Conservation began a program of experimentally releasing the progeny of several pure strains and hybrids of wild-trapped Asian pheasants. Initia breeding stock was secured through a cooperative agreement with the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife in conjunction with its Foreign Game Introduction Program (Bump 1963). One of the subspecies selected for release in Missouri was the South Korean ring-necked pheasant (P. c. k rpowi). South Korean ringnecks were selected because they were known to breed in captivity, their behavioral attributes were similar to the other successfully introduced ringnecks, and their native habitats were similar in many respects to those in Missouri, the upper Midwest, and parts of the eastern United States. The South Korean climate (Bohl 1970) with hot, humid summers characterized by frequent heavy rainfall, and average winter temperatures below freezing with snow falling no more than 30 days annually, is similar to the Missouri climate. 1 Contribution from the Missouri Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Missouri Department of Conservation, Wildlife Management Institute, and University of Missouri-Columbia, cooperating), from Federal Aid Project 13-R-23, Missouri Department of Conservation, and from the Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Journal Series Number 7616. The senior author was supported by a Paul K. Wehmiller Fellowship. 2 Present address: Ashland Wildlife Research Area, School of Forestry, Fisheries and Wildlife, University of Missouri-Columbia, Ashland 65010. 3 Present address: Division of Habitat Preservation Research, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. 20240. 616 J. Wildl. Manage. 41(4):1977 This content downloaded from 157.55.39.102 on Mon, 03 Oct 2016 04:08:36 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms KOREAN PHEASANTS IN MISSOURI -Wollard et al. 617

Chemical Elements and the Distribution of Pheasants in Illinois

Chemical Elements and the Distribution of Pheasants in Illinois

Relationships between Inorganic Ions and the Distribution of Pheasants in Illinois

Relationships between Inorganic Ions and the Distribution of Pheasants in Illinois

Effects of Dietary Calcium Levels on Egg Production and Bone Structure of Pheasants

Captive pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) hens fed various levels of calcium produced more eggs when the amount of calcium in the diet was increased. Birds on high calcium diets would have been able to produce two adequate sized clutches of eggs; birds which had received very little dietary calcium (0.5 percent) could not have produced two clutches. The amounts of calcium, phosphorus, and ash found in femurs varied little between birds fed different levels of calcium. Osteoporosis was detected in female pheasants fed low levels of calcium. Femurs of these birds had enlarged haversian canal systems, as shown by total space occupied by canals, mean canal size, and the amount of cortex present. Bones of birds fed 0.5 percent and 3.2 percent calcium were significantly different in these respects; inconclusive data were obtained from birds fed intermediate levels of calcium. Cocks on low calcium diets showed some evidence of osteoporosis; those receiving adequate calcium showed none. Recent studies have shown that pheasants can select calcium grits when unusual needs arise; thus pheasants might get enough calcium during the breeding season even in low-calcium habitat. To determine whether calcium supplies are adequate it is suggested that breeding females from areas of low populations be examined for evidence of osteoporosis. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of various dietary levels of calcium on (1) egg production and (2) the physiology of the pheasant hen, with emphasis on postlaying osteoporosis. Knowledge of changes in the skeleton and endocrine system that result from calcium deprivation is essential to evaluation of calcium as a factor influencing pheasant range extension. Leopold (1931:125-126) first suggested that the level of calcium in the soil may significantly influence the distribution of pheasants in North America. The results of later studies supported this hypothesis (McCann 1939 and 1961, Dale 1954, Dale and DeWitt 1958, Greeley 1962). However, the precise relationship between calcium levels and pheasant abundance remains unknown. The subject was recently reviewed by Korschgen (1964:176-177), Harper (1964: 264-265), and Harper and Labisky (1964: 722-723). Even in calcium-rich pheasant range, natural foods alone may not provide enough calcium to meet needs during the reproductive period. Dale (1954:318) found that the amount of calcium obtained from natural plant and animal foods supplied less than 20 percent of the amount required for optimum reproduction. However, pheasants may meet special calcium needs during the reproductive season by increasing mineral consumption (Dalke 1938:54, Trautman 1952:27). The hen's ability to select calcium-bearing grits, as demonstrated by Sadler (1961:341), enables her to increase consumption of calcium before and during the egg-laying period. Korschgen (1964:168) showed that during egg production, pheasant hens throughout the Midwest heavily supplement their diet with calcium-bearing grit or snails. Because of such findings, Korschgen (1964:177-178) and Harper and Labisky (1964:730) expressed considerable doubt about the importance of calcium as a factor limiting pheasant distribution. Eggshell formation requires substantial amounts of calcium, which constitutes 39.2 SThis project was supported by funds from Federal Aid to Wildlife Restoration Project, Surveys and Investigations Projects, Missouri 13-R.

The Influence of Calcium on the Distribution of Pheasants in Illinois

The role of deficient calcium as a factor limiting the distribution of pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) in Illinois was investigated by comparing the availability of calcium and its subsequent inges- tion by wild pheasants on an area (Neoga) of old glacial till originating from the Illinoian glacial age and on an area (Sibley) of more recent till originating from the Wisconsin glacial age. The amount of calcitic grit, and the amount of calcium contained in the calcitic grit, collected from roads and agri- cultural fields on both areas were similar, as were the amounts of calcium found in the soils from the two areas. The amounts of calcium found in the grit from gizzards of hens and young from both areas were very similar. The number and hatchability of eggs per incubated clutch, the production of chicks per hen, and the ash content of femora and of entire carcasses of hens during the nesting season were similar among pheasants at both Neoga and Sibley. Wild pheasants, particularly hens and young, seemingly possess the ability to select (1) calcareous grit from noncalcareous grit, (2) calcitic grit from dolomitic grit, and (3) calcitic grit with a high calcium content from that with a low calcium content; this habit of selective calcium ingestion may allow pheasants to prosper on areas where cal- careous grit is found only in relatively small quantities. The availability of calcium and its subsequent ingestion by pheasants at Neoga, an area of old glacial till, are apparently adequate for the establishment of self-maintaining pheasant populations.

Effects of Calcium Deficiency on Laying Hen Pheasants

During the past 30 years, the idea that the calcium content of the soil may significantly influence the distribution of pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) has been suggested by several writers. Leopold (1931) pointed out the success of pheasants released on the most recently glaciated, calcium-rich soils of the north-central states and the failure of birds released on old glacial, or unglaciated, deposits. Subsequent observations of the distribution of pheasants have tended to substantiate Leopold's original observation. A growing interest in the causes of this limitation of

Grit as an Ecological Factor

The pheasant, a highly granivorous species, succeeds best in areas of high calcium concentration. Grains are normally low in calcium content, hence lime-containing grits act as a necessary source of this element. Gravel of the proper chemical composition is particularly significant in the diet of growing birds, and probably for hens during the laying season. Recently glaciated regions where the till possesses high calcium characteristics represent the most suitable pheasant ranges. An example of this is the Minnesota, Dakota and northern Iowa area. The indications are that grit possessing large amounts of magnesium, even though adequate in calcium, is undesirable and may even be deleterious. The first to suggest a possible ecological role for grit was Leopold (1931). In discussing the peculiar distribution of pheasants and Hungarian partridge in the upper midwest, he hypothesized that various dietary factors, which included grit, might be responsible. Data herein reported cover studies relating to the importance of grit in the welfare and distribution of the ringneck pheasant (Phasianus colchicus). Three aspects of the problem are recognized: 1) evidence for any nutritional relationship specific enough to be ecologically significant; 2) problems relative to measuring grit adequacy; and 3) evidence, positive or negative, that grit is important in pheasant ecology under natural conditions. For gallinaceous birds, gravel (as a grinding agent) is generally recognized as an aid to the gizzard. However, any material hard enough to act as an abrasive seems to suffice; therefore, in this role the need for grit seems hardly singular enough to have ecological importance. McCann (1939) has demonstrated that grit is also a source of required nutrient for the pheasant and must be classified under the category of a critical food. By using young, growing pheasants and feeding measured quantities of insoluble gravel (quartz) it was demonstrated that grit consumption quickly rose to extravagant levels with a manifest, frenzied craving for grit, which prevailed over their appetite for normal organic food. This reflected a nutritional need, since feeding with a supplement of bone meal (primarily tri-calcium phosphate) resulted in an almost immediate return to normal grit consumption. In another similar experiment, gravel consisting of glacial 1 Funds for this study were supplied by the National Science Foundation. Facilities were gracioulsly provided by the College of St. Thomas, St. Paul, Minn., and consulting advice was given by the Department of Chemistry, College of St. Thomas. Population data was made available by the Bureau of Game Research, Minnesota Division of Game and Fish.

The Role of Calcium in Reproduction of the Ring-Necked Pheasant

ants in various major areas of North America seems largely understandable, certain localized aspects of this bird's distribution have continued to puzzle wildlife biologists. In southeastern United States, summer temperatures generally are assumed to be too high to permit reproduction (Graham and Hesterberg, 1948; Bennitt and Terrill, 1940; Yeatter, 1950). Lack of water is recognized as a potent limiting factor in the West, where ringnecks are restricted to irrigated areas. In midwestern and northeastern states, however, no clear-cut relationship has been established between pheasant distribution and any ecological factor. Pheasants are relatively abundant in southeastern Michigan but are rare in most southwestern counties of the State. Similarly, in southern Iowa, western Wisconsin, southeastern Ohio, and the cornbelt lands of Illinois and Indiana, populations of ringnecks are lower than would be expected on the basis of food and cover relationships. Ecological studies in these states have done little to explain failure in areas that appear from superficial surveys to have suitable habitat. Leopold (1931) suggested that glaciation might in some way influence success of the pheasant in the Lake States. He believed that some factor such as lime might be supplied in glaciated areas, but did not present any experimental evidence in support of this belief. This idea was furthered by McCann (1939), who demonstrated the superiority of glacial gravel over quartz as grit, but showed that quartz supplemented with calcium carbonate was adequate.