Distribution Of Environmental Hazards Research Articles

Socioeconomic position during pregnancy and pre-school exposome in children from eight European birth cohort studies

Distribution of environmental hazards and vulnerability to their effects vary across socioeconomic groups. Our objective was to analyse the relationship between child socioeconomic position (SEP) at birth and the external exposome at pre-school age (0–4 years).This study included more than 60,000 children from eight cohorts in eleven European cities (Oslo, Copenhagen, Bristol, Bradford, Rotterdam, Nancy, Poitiers, Gipuzkoa, Sabadell, Valencia and Turin). SEP was measured through maternal education and a standardised indicator of household income. Three child exposome domains were investigated: behavioral, diet and urban environment. We fitted separate logistic regression model for each exposome variable - dichotomised using the city-specific median - on SEP (medium/low vs high) adjusting for maternal age, country of birth and parity. Analyses were carried out separately in each study-area.Low-SEP children had, consistently across study-areas, lower Odds Ratios (ORs) of breastfeeding, consumption of eggs, fish, fruit, vegetables and higher ORs of TV screen time, pet ownership, exposure to second-hand smoke, consumption of dairy, potatoes, sweet beverages, savory biscuits and crisps, fats and carbohydrates. For example, maternal education-breastfeeding OR (95% Confidence Interval (CI)) ranged from 0.18 (0.14–0.24) in Bristol to 0.73 (0.58–0.90) in Oslo. SEP was also strongly associated with the urban environment with marked between-city heterogeneity. For example, income-PM2.5 OR (95%CI) ranged from 0.69 (0.47–1.02) in Sabadell to 2.44 (2.16–2.72) in Oslo.Already at pre-school age, children with lower SEP have consistently poorer diets and behaviours, which might influence their future health and wellbeing. SEP-urban environment relationships are strongly context-dependent.

Environmental (in)justice in the Anthropocene ocean

Environmental justice refers broadly to the distribution of environmental benefits and burdens, and the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people in environmental decision-making and legal frameworks. The field of environmental justice initially developed out of a concern for the disproportionate distribution and impacts of environmental pollution and hazardous waste disposal on groups that have been historically and structurally marginalized, including Black populations and socio-economically disadvantaged communities. More recent environmental justice scholarship has expanded geographically and focused on a broader set of environmental hazards and harms, such as climate change impacts, biodiversity and habitat loss, and ecosystem service declines. Yet, the impacts and distribution of environmental hazards and harms in the marine environment on coastal populations has received less attention in the environmental justice literature. This narrative review paper starts to address this gap through a focus on five main areas of environmental injustice in the ocean: 1) pollution and toxic wastes, 2) plastics and marine debris, 3) climate change, 4) ecosystem, biodiversity and ecosystem service degradation, and 5) fisheries declines. For each, we characterize the issue and root drivers, then examine social and distributional impacts. In the discussion, we explore how these environmental injustices are converging and interacting, cumulative, differentiated, and geographically distributed, and briefly examine solutions and future research directions. In conclusion, we call for greater and more explicit attention to environmental justice in ocean research and policy.

Spatial injustice of particulate matter: the case of California

ABSTRACTThis research explores the spatial patterns of environmental risk and their equity implications with particular focus on particulate matter (PM) air pollution in California, USA. Regarding risk distribution, two distinctive approaches have stood out in environmental scholarship: the risk society thesis and an environmental (in)justice claim. While the former asserts that modernization has made environmental risks more pervasive and less discriminatory extending beyond the traditional socioeconomic and geographic boundaries, the latter demonstrates the disproportionate influences of political and demographic trends on the distribution of environmental hazards. Against these intellectual backgrounds, the research presented here seeks to examine whether, and how, socioeconomic factors of race/ethnicity and unemployment affect PM distribution while controlling for other land-use (i.e. multi-housing and no vehicle) and geographic (i.e. elevation and tree canopy) features. Utilizing bivariate and multivariate analyses that incorporate spatial interaction, the research found PM exposure patterns to follow traditional postures of the environmental (in)justice claim, with Hispanics and Blacks disproportionately exposed to higher levels of PM.

Which came first, people or pollution? A review of theory and evidence from longitudinal environmental justice studies

A considerable number of quantitative analyses have been conducted in the past several decades that demonstrate the existence of racial and socioeconomic disparities in the distribution of a wide variety of environmental hazards. The vast majority of these have been cross-sectional, snapshot studies employing data on hazardous facilities and population characteristics at only one point in time. Although some limited hypotheses can be tested with cross-sectional data, fully understanding how present-day disparities come about requires longitudinal analyses that examine the demographic characteristics of sites at the time of facility siting and track demographic changes after siting. Relatively few such studies exist and those that do exist have often led to confusing and contradictory findings. In this paper we review the theoretical arguments, methods, findings, and conclusions drawn from existing longitudinal environmental justice studies. Our goal is to make sense of this literature and to identify the direction future research should take in order to resolve confusion and arrive at a clearer understanding of the processes and contributory factors by which present-day racial and socioeconomic disparities in the distribution of environmental hazards have come about. Such understandings also serve as an important step in identifying appropriate and effective societal responses to ameliorate environmental disparities.

The Spatial Distribution of Leaking Underground Storage Tanks in Charleston, South Carolina: An Environmental Justice Analysis

A current research trajectory within environmental justice literature has been to explore various measures of proximity to environmental hazards which may contribute to exposure and health risks for vulnerable populations. Research has shown that many low-income residential areas, which often are predominantly comprised of people of color, are located in close proximity to hazardous waste sites. Public health researchers have documented that these inequities in residential patterns can be linked to negative health impacts, resulting in health disparities. The purpose of this article is to evaluate spatial distributions of leaking underground storage tanks (LUSTs) in the Charleston Metropolitan Statistical area (MSA). Furthermore, we aim to use various geographic information system (GIS) techniques that could provide local policymakers and community groups with knowledge to make better decisions for revitalization, planning, and community development efforts. Three GIS techniques were used in this study: 1) mean distance analysis, 2) spatial coincidence, and 3) proximity analysis. To examine the association between distance to the nearest LUST and proportions of non-whites in census tracts, linear regression models were applied. Chi-square tests were conducted to compare differences of race/ethnicity and SES between census tracts that host LUSTs and those that do not host LUSTs. Results indicate that a disparity exist between census tracts that host LUSTs and census tracts that do not host LUSTs based on race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status. These data provide additional evidence that spatial disparities exist in the distribution of environmental hazards beyond Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) facilities in the Charleston MSA in census tracts with higher numbers of people of color and poor populations. Community groups such as the Low Country Alliance for Model Communities (LAMC) can use this information in its efforts to revitalize LAMC neighborhoods and achieve environmental justice and eliminate health disparities in underserved communities in the region.

Migration, class and environmental inequality: Exposure to pollution in China's Jiangsu Province

Systematic research into social inequalities in the distribution of environmental hazards, though well-established in American sociology, has largely not been conducted using quantitative data from developing countries. In this study we consider whether theory and methods developed to test for and explain environmental inequality in the U.S. can be extended to a major developing country such as China. We argue that, due in part to the state's hukou registry system, urban workers in China with an official rural residence may be subject to disproportionate exposure to environmental pollution. We also argue that environmental inequalities in China may be shaped in part by social processes analogous to those which have been held to explain racial differences in pollution exposure in the U.S. In an analysis of the locations and emissions of pollution-producing facilities in China's Jiangsu province, we find that townships with a higher percentage of rural migrants are more likely to be exposed to high levels of air and water pollution. This finding holds even after we control for income and for the presence of “dirty and hard” industries in which rural migrants are most likely to find work.

Reframing Katrina: The Color of Disaster in Spike Lee's When the Levees Broke

Spike Lee's four-hour HBO documentary film When the Levees Broke about Hurricane Katrina and its aftermath uses the tragic events around the storm as an occasion to consider the continued significance of race and class in the inequitable distribution of environmental hazards in the United States, while at the same time celebrating traditional New Orleans culture. Lee's film gives voice to those who were directly affected by the Katrina disaster and reminds us that for historical and socio-political reasons African-American and other minority perspectives on issues of sustainability are necessarily different from those of mainstream environmentalists. Through its powerful presentation of these alternative perspectives and needs, When the Levees Broke raises awareness for the fact that any concept for a “sustainable” New Orleans that does not address the enormous class and race-based inequities within the city will be unjust and thus fundamentally flawed.

Urban Environmental Justice Indices

Environmental justice is the principle that environmental costs and amenities ought to be equitably distributed within society. Due to the ethical, political, and public–health implications, and because many choices confront those researching environmental justice, standardized measures are needed to inform public dialogue and policy. We develop and test seven indices on three Colorado cities to measure the relationship between the distribution of environmental hazards and minority and poverty–stricken populations, and recommend the Comparative Environmental Risk Index as a preliminary, standardized measure for comparing urban areas. This index is particularly relevant to disadvantaged communities, regional planning organizations, environmental–justice networks and scholars, and state and federal agencies.

Environmental Compliance Costs and the Distribution of Emissions in the U.S.

Using the properties of the Gini coefficient, a structural model is developed to assess the impact of uniform changes in environmental compliance costs on the distribution of per capita emissions across U.S. counties and states, a distribution that places a larger burden on minorities. Using data from the U.S. EPA’s Toxic Release Inventory and three state‐specific measures of environmental compliance costs, we find that uniform increases in federal environmental standards have little impact on the distribution of environmental hazards, and may actually exacerbate spatial inequality. As a result, Federal standards that target specific high pollution locations are necessary to redress current inequities.

A GIS Class Exercise to Study Environmental Risk

Geographic Information System (GIS) software can be used to determine the spatial distribution of environmental hazards. The ability to look at multiple layers of information on one map enables investigators to visually compare areas that contain high numbers of hazardous industries with variables such as socio-economic status and race. We used GIS in a classroom exercise to examine the distribution of toxic release sites in Queens, New York. Using 1990 U.S. Census tract data along with Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) sites registered by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for Queens in 2000, we created a series of maps to examine the relationships between the locations of known toxic releases and demographic factors such as race, education, income levels, and linguistic isolation. By using readily available digital data like TRI sites and census tract data this classroom project shows students the utility of GIS for analysis of environmental hazards. Our in-class exercise revealed 1) distinct divides between neighborhoods by race; 2) an association between the locations of TRI sites and Asian and Hispanic linguistic isolation; 3) correspondence between the locations of TRI sites and limited level of education; and 4) overlap between the locations of TRI sites and neighborhoods of low income. Although not a definitive environmental risk study, these findings suggest that neighborhoods with limited resources to prevent the siting of undesirable technologies in their communities or to move out of harm's way may be disproportionately subjected to environmental risks. Exercises of this sort are easily carried out by students with access to GIS. Such studies demonstrate to students the societal importance of integrating natural and social sciences.

Local Risks, States' Rights, and Federal Mandates: Remedying Environmental Inequities in the U.S. Federal System

One of the most salient debates in environmental policy centers around perceived racial and class biases in exposure to environmental hazards. As with most aspects of environmental policy, states are at the forefront in dealing with these new issues. However, we have only a cursory understanding of the actions being taken by state governments to address environmental justice issues. Equally important, scholars and practitioners have yet to take stock of the likely consequences of federal policy directions to the states in this area on the distribution of environmental hazards or on the distribution of authority between the federal and state governments. We address the first shortcoming using two original surveys of state environmental justice activities, and the second through a detailed discussion of current federal efforts aimed at promoting environmental justice in the states.

Regional distribution of environmental hazards in Norway

The registrations of out-payment due to hazards in Norway by the Norwegian National Fund for Natural Disaster Assistance (the NDAF-Statens Naturskadefond 1962-1994) and the Norwegian Natural Perils Pool (the NPP-Norsk Naturskadepool 1980-1994) are the basis for the regionalization of hazards in Norway. Four different regions at the county level are identified: 1. More og Romsdal, Sør-Trondelag, Nord-Trøndelag and Nordland, with most damage and highest disbursement; 2. Rogaland, Hordaland, Sogn og Fjordane, Troms and Finnmark; 3. Østfold, Oslo & Akershus, Hedmark, Oppland, Buskerud and Telemark; and 4. Vestfold, Aust-Agder and Vest-Agder, with the lowest disbursement. Storms are the most important hazard, followed by floods. In Østfold and Sør-Trondelag clay slides rank second, as do snow avalanches in More og Romsdal. Rock falls are of surprisingly low importance.

The Impact of Race on Environmental Quality: An Empirical and Theoretical Discussion

The toxic pollution problem is composed of several interrelated parts which are involved in the process of production, use, and disposal of chemicals and products considered necessary for society. Each day, millions of pounds of toxic chemicals are used, stored, disposed of, and transported in and out of communities throughout the United States. Most Americans assume that pollution and other environmental hazards are problems faced equally by everyone in our society. But a growing body of research shows that the most common victims of environmental hazards and pollution are minorities and the poor. Disproportionate exposure to environmental hazards is part of the complex cycle of discrimination and deprivation faced by minorities in the United States. This article examines social science empirical research on the relationship between race, class, and the distribution of environmental hazards and the theoretical perspectives which have emerged to explain environmental inequities. The article also discusses the link between the environmental justice movement, which seeks to confront the causes and consequences of environmental inequities, and social science research on environmental inequity.