Distribution Of Diagenetic Alterations Research Articles

Climatic, depositional and environmental controls on early carbonate cementation in fluvial and shallow marine sandstones

Sandstones with carbonate cements are found in a variety of depositional settings (e.g. fluvial, lacustrine, deltaic, shallow marine) with abundances ranging from just a few volume percent to pervasive pore-filling cements and are of major interest due to their impact on reservoir quality. Despite the widespread occurrence of such cements, predictive models for eogenetic carbonate cementation have yet to be developed. Hence, investigations on the controls and distribution of early carbonate precipitation are necessary to improve the accuracy of predictions of the nature and distribution of diagenetic alterations. We conducted a petrological and petrophysical analysis of early near-surface carbonate cementation in siliciclastic and mixed siliciclastic-carbonate sandstones from fluvial and shallow marine environments to reconstruct eogenetic processes and their associated controls. Furthermore, sediment burial scenarios up to a loading of 50 MPa were simulated with the reservoir quality prediction software Touchstone to evaluate the impact of carbonate cements on the compaction behaviour of the rocks. Results highlight the importance of climate, depositional environment and detrital composition and texture in regards to the precipitation processes of near-surfaces carbonate cements and burial development. Our data shows that the presence and distribution of early carbonate cements reflects a complex interaction of several parameters, such as the composition and texture of detrital material in the source area, the availability and infiltration of meteoric or marine waters and the presence of precursor carbonate during deposition. Burial simulations demonstrate the strengthening effect of early carbonate cementation and its influence on the development of intergranular volume and porosity during burial with up to five times less porosity loss due to compaction than without near-surface cementation.

Impact of diagenesis on reservoir quality and heterogeneity of the Upper Triassic Chang 8 tight oil sandstones in the Zhenjing area, Ordos Basin, China

Reservoir quality and heterogeneity are critical risk factors in tight oil exploration. The integrated, analysis of the petrographic characteristics and the types and distribution of diagenetic alterations in the Chang 8 sandstones from the Zhenjing area using core, log, thin-section, SEM, petrophysical and stable isotopic data provides insight into the factors responsible for variations in porosity and permeability in tight sandstones. The results indicate that the Chang 8 sandstones mainly from subaqueous distributary channel facies are mostly moderately well to well sorted fine-grained feldspathic litharenites and lithic arkose. The sandstones have ultra-low permeabilities that are commonly less than 1 mD, a wide range of porosities from 0.3 to 18.1%, and two distinct porosity-permeability trends with a boundary of approximately 10% porosity. These petrophysical features are closely related to the types and distribution of the diagenetic alterations. Compaction is a regional porosity-reducing process that was responsible for a loss of more than half of the original porosity in nearly all of the samples. The wide range of porosity is attributed to variations in calcite cementation and chlorite coatings. The relatively high-porosity reservoirs formed due to preservation of the primary intergranular pores by chlorite coatings rather than burial dissolution; however, the chlorites also obstruct pore throats, which lead to the development of reservoirs with high porosity but low permeability. In contrast, calcite cementation is the dominant factor in the formation of low-porosity, ultra-low-permeability reservoirs by filling both the primary pores and the pore throats in the sandstones. The eogenetic calcites are commonly concentrated in tightly cemented concretions or layers adjacent to sandstone-mudstone contacts, while the mesogenetic calcites were deposited in all of the intervals and led to further heterogeneity. This study can be used as an analogue to understand the variations in the pathways of diagenetic evolution and their impacts on the reservoir quality and heterogeneity of sandstones and is useful for predicting the distribution of potential high-quality reservoirs in similar geological settings.

Facies controls on the distribution of diagenetic alterations in fan delta deposits: a case study from the Lower Cretaceous sandstone, Chagan Sag, Inner Mongolia, China

AbstractBy integrating diagenesis and sedimentary facies, the distribution of diagenetic alterations and their impacts on reservoir quality were investigated within a lacustrine fan delta depositional environment in the Lower Cretaceous of the Western sub‐sag in the Chagan Sag, Yin‐E Basin, northern China. Core observation and analyses of petrography and geochemistry of the sandstones revealed that the eogenetic alterations display spatial and temporal distribution patterns associated with sedimentary facies, including distributary channels of a fan delta front (DC), distributary bays (DB) and sheet sands (SS) and mouth bar (MB) (SS and MB are collectively referred to as S). Percolation of meteoric waters occurring in high permeability DC sandstones resulted in leaching of feldspar, the formation of kaolinite, as well as mechanical infiltrated clays around detrital grains. Conversely, the DB deposits containing abundant ductile lithic fragments were subjected to mechanical compaction and thus the development of a pseudomatrix. During a long burial residence time (the Early Cretaceous period) in a lacustrine environment, abundant early carbonate cements were precipitated, especially in the distal S sandstones. The sandstones lacking eogenetic cements were subjected to stronger mechanical compaction. Additionally, eogenetic alterations have an important impact on the distribution of the mesogenetic alterations. Sandstones containing few eogenetic cements or thin or discontinuous infiltrated clay rims around the detrital grains were subjected to quartz cementation. However, during the hydrocarbon generation stage, the most efficient percolation of meteoric waters and organic acid dissolved feldspar minerals and carbonate cements, resulted in DC sandstones having more intragranular and intergranular porosity. Owing to high matrix contents and early calcite cement contents, the DB and S sandstones had lower permeability and were rarely dissolved. During the late mesogenetic stage, late carbonate cements occurred in all sedimentary facies and iron and magnesium ions were released from the transformation from kaolinite to illite or to chlorite. The results from this study show possible diagenetic evolutionary pathways in the reservoir sandstones within the fan delta depositional environment, which in turn provides some insights into the controls on reservoir potential. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Impact of depositional facies on the distribution of diagenetic alterations in the Devonian shoreface sandstone reservoirs, Southern Ghadamis Basin, Libya

The middle Devonian, shoreface quartz arenites (present-day burial depths 2833-2786m) are important oil and gas reservoirs in the Ghadamis Basin, western Libya. This integrated petrographic and geochemical study aims to unravel the impact of depositional facies on distribution of diagenetic alterations and, consequently, related reservoir quality and heterogeneity of the sandstones. Eogenetic alterations include the formation of kaolinite, pseudomatrix, and pyrite. The mesogenetic alterations include cementation by quartz overgrowths, Fe-dolomite/ankerite, and illite, transformation of kaolinite to dickite, illitization of smectite, intergranular quartz dissolution, and stylolitization, and albitization of feldspar. The higher energy of deposition of the coarser-grained upper shoreface sandstones combined with less extensive chemical compaction and smaller amounts of quartz overgrowths account for their better primary reservoir quality compared to the finer-grained, middle-lower shoreface sandstones. The formation of kaolin in the upper and middle shoreface sandstones is attributed to a greater flux of meteoric water. More abundant quartz overgrowths in the middle and lower shoreface is attributed to a greater extent of stylolitization, which was promoted by more abundant illitic clays. This study demonstrated that linking the distribution of diagenetic alterations to depositional facies of shoreface sandstones leads to a better understanding of the impact of these alterations on the spatial and temporal variation in quality and heterogeneity of the reservoirs.

Distribution of diagenetic alterations within depositional facies and sequence stratigraphic framework of fan delta and subaqueous fan sandstones: evidence from the Lower Cretaceous Bayingebi Formation, Chagan sag, China–Mongolia frontier area

Linking siliciclastic diagenesis to sequence stratigraphy allows a better understanding of the parameters controlling the spatial and temporal distribution of diagenetic alterations. A study of the subaqueous fan and fan delta sandstones of the Bayingebi Formation, Lower Cretaceous, Chagan sag (China), reveals that the distribution of diagenetic alterations can be constrained within a sequence stratigraphic framework. Eogenetic alterations, which were encountered in the sandstones of subaqueous fan and fan delta, include: (1) replacement of detrital silicates and mud matrix by kaolinites in sandstones of the late highstand systems tract (HST) and the lowstand systems tract (LST). The formation of kaolinites is attributed to the influx of meteoric water when the base level fell and the channels migrated laterally on preexisting floodplains or channel deposits. (2) Infiltrated clays, which rim around detrital grains, mainly occur in channel sandstones of the LST due to the percolation of mud-rich surface waters. (3) Calcite I (δ18OVPDB = −20.19‰ to −3.64‰ and δ13CVPDB = −0.67‰ to −3.1‰), Calcite II (δ18OVPDB = −14‰ to −18.28‰ and δ13CVPDB = −2.2‰ to −3.60‰), dolomite (δ18OVPDB = −17.91‰ to −21.04‰ and δ13CVPDB = −0.46‰ to −1.66‰) and ankerite (δ18OVPDB = −15.02 to −20.42‰ and δ13CVPDB = −0.074 to −1.43‰), which are associated with palaeosol horizons mainly developed on top of overbank and channel sandstones of transgressive systems tract (TST) and early stage of the HST. Such extensive eogenetic calcite cements may act as potential layers for the formation of reservoir compartments for underlying sandstones. Mesogenetic alterations include: (1) abundant quartz overgrowths in the overbank sandstones of subaqueous fan in the LST and pro-fan-delta sandstones in the HST, in which early carbonate cements are lacking and grain-coats are thin. (2) Illite, chlorite and albitized feldspars, which occur in small amounts, are most common in the LST and late stage of the HST sandstones. Such cementation by calcite, dolomite, quartz overgrowths and formation of illite led to porosity and permeability deterioration during mesodiagenesis. This study revealed the importance of integration of diagenesis with sequence stratigraphy of subaqueous fan and fan delta sandstones in improving our ability to predict the spatial and temporal distribution of eogenetic alterations and their subsequent impact on mesogenetic alterations, and thus on reservoir quality modifications.

Distribution of Diagenetic Alterations in Fluvial Channel and Floodplain Deposits in the Triassic Narrabeen Group, Southern Sydney Basin, Australia

Abstract In the Narrabeen Group, floodplain shale and siltstone are abundant in the Wombarra Claystone, Stanwell Park Claystone and Bald Hill Claystone whereas the Newport Formation is a fine-grained lagoonal deposit. Medium-and coarse-grained fluvial channel sandstone is common in the Coalcliff, Scarborough and Bulgo. Sandstone composition includes mostly lithic grains with minor quartz, feldspar, mica and heavy minerals; litharenites and sublitharenites are common and quartzarenites are rare. The diagenetic alterations include compaction, quartz overgrowths, authigenic clay minerals, carbonate cement and authigenic feldspar. Quartz overgrowths are present in the channel, floodplain, lagoonal and shallow marine facies but are more common in the channel facies. Also, the channell facies are characterised by pore-filling carbonate cement, grain-coating carbonate cement and carbonate replacement of grains. Carbonate cement, pore-filling clays and grain-coating clays occur in all the channel, floodplain, lagoonal and shallow marine facies. Fluvial channel and floodplain facies contain feldspar overgrowths which disappear in the lagoonal and shallow marine facies. Dissolution of unstable grains is observed in the channel, floodplain and lagoonal facies but is more abundant in the channel facies in the Narrabeen Group. Mechanical and chemical compaction is conspicuous in the channel facies but also occurs in the floodplain and lagoonal facies.

RESERVOIR QUALITY ASSESSMENT AND PETROFACIES OF THE LOWER CRETACEOUS SILICICLASTIC, CARBONATE AND HYBRID ARENITES FROM THE JEQUITINHONHA BASIN, EASTERN BRAZIL

A study of the rift to early drift phase, fluvial, deltaic and shallow‐marine Lower Cretaceous (Upper Aptian to Lower Albian) siliciclastic sandstones, hybrid arenites and calcarenites from the Jequitinhonha Basin, eastern Brazilian margin, has shown that the distribution of diagenetic alterations and of related reservoir quality evolution can be constrained within a sequence stratigraphic framework. Description of cores, wireline logs, thin sections and petrophysical (porosity and permeability) analyses were integrated in order to investigate the controls on patterns of diagenesis in these rocks, and hence of reservoir quality distribution. The results of this study will be relevant to the exploration of rift and early drift successions in Atlantic‐type passive margin settings. The study suggests that depositional facies and detrital composition impact the diagenetic evolution and the characterization and prediction of reservoir quality.Reservoir quality assessment was based on the concept of reservoir petrofacies, which is defined in terms of the main attributes affecting reservoir quality including depositional structures, textures, primary composition, diagenetic processes and products, and pore types. This paper demonstrates the practical use of the reservoir petrofacies concept in the evaluation of the controls on porosity and permeability, as well as on seismic and log signatures.

Linking diagenesis to sequence stratigraphy in fluvial and shallow marine sandstones: Evidence from the Cambrian–Ordovician lower sandstone unit in southwestern Sinai, Egypt

By integrating diagenesis and sequence stratigraphy, the distribution of diagenetic alterations and their impact on reservoir quality was investigated within a sequence stratigraphic framework using the fluvial and shallow marine sandstones in the Cambrian–Ordovician succession of southwest Sinai. The perographic and geochemical analysis of the studied sandstone revealed that the eogenetic alterations display fairly systematic spatial and temporal distribution patterns within the lowstand system tract and transgressive system tract, as well as along the sequence stratigraphic surfaces (i.e., sequence boundaries, transgressive surfaces and parasequence boundaries). During relative sea-level fall, percolation of meteoric waters through sandstones of the LST and below sequence and parasequence boundaries resulted in extensive dissolution of detrital grains and formation of kaolinite, authigenic K-feldspar and feldspar overgrowths as well as formation of mechanical infiltrated clays around the detrital grains. During relative sea-level rise, invasion of marine water into the sandstones as a consequence of landward migration of the shoreline, as well as low sedimentation rates encountered in the TST, resulted in the formation of glauconite, apatite and pyrite. Development of pseudomatrix, which was formed by mechanical compaction of mud intraclasts, is mostly abundant along transgressive surfaces and parasequence boundaries of the TST, and is related to the abundance of mud intraclasts in the transgressive lag deposits. The types and extent of eogenetic alterations have an important impact on the distribution of the mesogenetic alterations, including the formation of quartz overgrowths and dickite. Distribution of mesogenetic quartz overgrowths in the sandstones was controlled by the distribution of mechanically infiltrated clays and the presence of eogenetic cement. Sandstones that remained poorly cemented during eodiagenesis and that have thin or discontinuous infiltrated clay rims around the detrital grains were cemented during mesodiagenesis by quartz. The absence of extensive eogenetic cements in the sandstones suggested that the partial deterioration of porosity was mainly due to mechanical compaction. Partial transformation of kaolinite to dickite, which indicates neomorphic change to a better-ordered and more stable crystal structure at the elevated temperatures during mesodiagenesis, is partially a function of distribution of kaolinite during eodiagenesis. The conceptual model developed in this study shows the diagenetic evolutionary pathways in the reservoir sandstones within a sequence stratigraphic context, which in turn provides some insights into the controls on reservoir heterogeneity.

AN INTEGRATED STUDY OF DIAGENESIS AND DEPOSITIONAL FACIES IN TIDAL SANDSTONES: HAWAZ FORMATION (MIDDLE ORDOVICIAN), MURZUQ BASIN, LIBYA

Studies of the impact of diagenesis on reservoir quality in tidal sandstones can be of great importance in successful hydrocarbon exploration. The study reported here shows that diagenetic alterations and bioturbation have induced considerable deterioration and heterogeneity in the reservoir quality of the sand‐dominated tidal deposits of the Middle Ordovician Hawaz Formation in the Muruq Basin, Libya. Comparison is made between the diagenetic evolution of samples from the subsurface (present‐day depth 1500 m) and from surface outcrops in order to study the impact of burial and uplift on the spatial and temporal distribution of reservoir quality in the Hawaz Formation sandstones.Eogenetic alterations, which were mediated by meteoric water circulation, included kaolinitization and dissolution of framework silicates and mechanical compaction. Mesogenetic alterations (T > 70°C; depth > 2 km) included pressure dissolution of quartz grains and concomitant quartz cementation, conversion of kaolinite into dickite, illitization of kaolinite and of grain‐coating clays, and the precipitation of Mg‐rich siderite cement. Reduction of intergranular porosity was due more to compaction than to cementation, yet quartz overgrowths are up to 16% in some of the sandstones. Bioturbation has resulted in a greater reduction in sandstone permeability in the lower part of the formation than the upper part. A higher ratio of dickite to kaolinite in subsurface samples than in outcrop samples is attributed to the longer residence time of the former sandstones under mesogenetic conditions. Telodiagenesis has not resulted in enhancement of reservoir quality of the Hawaz Formation Sandstones but in pseudomorphic calcitization of siderite and oxidation of pyrite to goethite.This study shows that the reservoir‐quality evolution of tidal sandstones can best be elucidated when linked to depositional facies and distribution of diagenetic alterations.

The impact of diagenesis on the heterogeneity of sandstone reservoirs: A review of the role of depositional facies and sequence stratigraphy

Diagenesis exerts a strong control on the quality and heterogeneity of most clastic reservoirs. Variations in the distribution of diagenetic alterations usually accentuate the variations in depositional porosity and permeability. Linking the types and distribution of diagenetic processes to the depositional facies and sequence-stratigraphic framework of clastic successions provides a powerful tool to predict the distribution of diagenetic alterations controlling quality and heterogeneity. The heterogeneity patterns of sandstone reservoirs, which determine the volumes, flow rates, and recovery of hydrocarbons, are controlled by geometry and internal structures of sand bodies, grain size, sorting, degree of bioturbation, provenance, and by the types, volumes, and distribution of diagenetic alterations. Variations in the pathways of diagenetic evolution are linked to (1) depositional facies, hence pore-water chemistry, depositional porosity and permeability, types and amounts of intrabasinal grains, and extent of bioturbation; (2) detrital sand composition; (3) rate of deposition (controlling residence time of sediments at specific near-surface, geochemical conditions); and (4) burial thermal history of the basin. The amounts and types of intrabasinal grains are also controlled by changes in the relative sea level and, therefore, can be predicted in the context of sequence stratigraphy, particularly in paralic and shallow marine environments. Changes in the relative sea level exert significant control on the types and extent of near-surface shallow burial diagenetic alterations, which in turn influence the pathways of burial diagenetic and reservoir quality evolution of clastic reservoirs. Carbonate cementation is more extensive in transgressive systems tract (TST) sandstones, particularly below parasequence boundaries, transgressive surface , and maximum flooding surface because of the abundance of carbonate bioclasts and organic matter, bioturbation, and prolonged residence time of the sediments at and immediately below the sea floor caused by low sedimentation rates, which also enhance the formation of glaucony. Eogenetic grain-coating berthierine, odinite, and smectite, formed mostly in TST and early highstand systems tract deltaic and estuarine sandstones, are transformed into ferrous chlorite during mesodiagenesis, helping preserve reservoir quality through the inhibition of quartz cementation. The infiltration of grain-coating smectitic clays is more extensive in braided than in meandering fluvial sandstones, forming flow barriers in braided amalgamated reservoirs, and may either help preserve porosity during burial because of quartz overgrowth inhibition or reduce it by enhancing intergranular pressure dissolution. Diagenetic modifications along sequence boundaries are characterized by considerable dissolution and kaolinization of feldspars, micas, and mud intraclasts under wet and warm climates, whereas a semiarid climate may lead to the formation of calcrete dolocrete cemented layers. Turbidite sandstones are typically cemented by carbonate along the contacts with interbedded mudrocks or carbonate mudstones and marls, as well as along layers of concentration of carbonate bioclasts and intraclasts. Commonly, hybrid carbonate turbidite arenites are pervasively cemented. Proximal, massive turbidites normally show only scattered spherical or ovoid carbonate concretions. Improved geologic models based on the connections among diagenesis, depositional facies, and sequence-stratigraphic surfaces and intervals may not only contribute to optimized production through the design of appropriate simulation models for improved or enhanced oil recovery strategies, as well as for CO2 geologic sequestration, but also support more effective hydrocarbon exploration through reservoir quality prediction.

Distribution of Diagenetic Alterations in Siliciclastic Shoreface Deposits within a Sequence Stratigraphic Framework: Evidence from the Upper Jurassic, Boulonnais, NW France

The distribution of diagenetic alterations in Upper Jurassic, siliciclastic shoreface sediments from NW France has been linked to the sequence stratigraphic framework. Calcite cement in mudrocks and sandstones of the transgressive (TST) and lower part of the highstand (HST) systems tracts is microcrystalline and occurs as continuously cemented layers and stratabound concretions. The average delta(18)O(V-PDB) (-2.6%omicron) and Sr-87/Sr-86 (0.7078) compositions of microcrystalline calcite indicate precipitation from largely marine pore waters. >Calcite cement in sandstones of the forced regressive wedge (FRWST) and lowstand (LST) systems tracts is poikilotopic and occurs mainly as stratabound concretions. Complete dissolution of the carbonate grains and concomitant precipitation of poikilotopic calcite cement with low average delta(18)O (-5.3%omicron) and radiogenie Sr-isotope (0.70882) signatures suggest incursion of meteoric waters into sandstones during relative sea-level lowstand. The poorly lithified sandstones interbedded with sandstones cemented by poikilotopic calcite concretions display evidence of diagenesis under episodes of and to semiarid paleoclimate, including: (i) partial cementation by opal, chalcedony, gypsum, and minor vadose calcite cement, (ii) mechanically infiltrated clays and Fe-oxides, and (iii) secondary porosity owing to partial dissolution of carbonate grains. The integration of diagenesis into sequence stratigraphy allows better elucidation and prediction of the spatial and temporal distribution of diagenetic alterations and related reservoir-quality modifications in shoreface sediments

Distribution of Diagenetic Alterations in Fluvial, Deltaic, and Shallow Marine Sandstones Within a Sequence Stratigraphic Framework: Evidence from the Mullaghmore Formation (Carboniferous), NW Ireland

ABSTRACT The distribution of diagenetic alterations in the fluvial, deltaic and shallow marine, arkosic to subarkosic sandstones (average Q72F26L02) of the Mullaghmore Formation (Carboniferous, NW Ireland) can be predicted within a sequence stratigraphic framework. Eogenetic calcite (18OPDB = -13.3‰ to -6.5‰, 13CPDB = -3.0 to +3.4‰, and 87Sr/86Sr = 0.706721 to 0.709227) and ferron dolomite (FeCO3 = 8-12 mol%; 18OPDB = -14.2‰ to -7.8‰, 13CPDB = -1.4‰ to -1.0‰, and 87Sr/86Sr = 0.709051 to 0.709167) occur in bioclast-rich, transgressive lag deposits at parasequence boundaries and transgressive surfaces, and in wave-influenced, deltaic, highstand systems tract (HST) deposits. Mesogenetic illite, chlorite, baroque dolomite (FeCO3 = 16 mol%; 18OPDB = -14.2‰ to -12.7‰, 13CPDB = -3.8‰ to -1.0‰), quartz, and calcite (18OPDB = -15.7‰ to -12.5‰, 13CPDB = -5.8‰ to -3.7‰, and 87Sr/86Sr = 0.709016 to 0.709122) were formed mainly in the bioclast-poor deposits, which were not pervasively cemented by carbonates during near-surface eodiagenesis. These deposits include fluvial, incised-valley sandstones of lowstand systems tract (LST), and fluvial-dominated, deltaic sandstones of transgressive systems tract (TST) and HST. Illite is the dominant diagenetic clay mineral in the fluvial, incised-valley sandstones of LST, possibly because of simultaneous albitization of K-feldspars. Conversely, chlorite, dominates in the fluvial-dominated, deltaic sandstones of TST and HST, because of the presence of suitable precursor clays. The integration of diagenesis into sequence stratigraphic framework of clastic sequences should improve the ability to predict the spatial and temporal distribution of diagenetic alterations and related reservoir-quality modifications of sandstone deposits.

Integrated 3-D quality control of geological interpretation through the use of simple methods and programs: ABSTRACT

Integrating different petroleum geology disciplines gives insight and help in analyzing data and in checking the quality of different interpretations. Simple approaches and affordable programs allow rapid visualization of data in 3-D. Displaying geological data from stratigraphy, diagenesis, and structural geology together, allows identification of anomalies (i.e. development targets) and often gives clues of the controlling processes. Four case studies from world class fields are used to illustrate the vital need to integrate quality control of interpretation across disciplines. Distribution of diagenetic alterations is revealed by visualizing diagenetic and petrographic data against faults in a 3-D statistical program. Faults are transferred from 3-D seismic into such a program and then analyzed against other data. Fault intersections wrongly correlated are also easily picked. Other powerful tools include a modified use of the Bischke Plots that allow the identification of missing sections previously identified as fault cut-outs. The quality of interpretation has sometimes been assessed from the presence of stacked anomalies of various expression. In other cases repeated unexpected isopach trends revealed subtle faults such as riedels sealing and compartmentizing the reservoirs. Occasionally the timing of fault reactivation was assessed precisely whereas all other techniques failed even to identify these hidden features.more » Unrecognized porosity-depth trends were identified after filtering data for stratigraphy or sedimentology and studying it in its geographical and tectonic context. Three dimensional visualization was needed in cases of quartz overgrowth where grain size, depth, stratigraphy and location with respect to faults were all important.« less