Distributary Canals Research Articles

Assessing the impacts of canal rehabilitation and lining on groundwater conditions

ABSTRACT The Nile Delta aquifer stands as Egypt’s second primary freshwater source following the Nile River. Its replenishment deriveed from various sources, including the Nile branches, the surface irrigation networks, and the infiltration of excess irrigation water. The expanded demand for irrigation water causes water shortages at the canal tails of some irrigation canals across Egypt. Farmers have resorted to addressing this issue by illegally excavating shallow wells, employing them in times when surface water is inaccessible. Among the national action plans to improve water availability at canal tails is the lining of distributary canals. However, this intervention potentially obstructs the natural replenishment source of the Nile Delta aquifer, consequently contributing to the deterioration of groundwater quality. Hence, this research aims to evaluate the impacts of lining distributary canals on groundwater status through numerical modeling. Utilizing the MODFLOW package, the study determines the natural infiltration rates from the canals into the adjoining groundwater system. Two prevalent hydrological conditions in Egypt were selected for numerical modeling. The first case study focuses on a Canal, located in Qalyoubia governorate, represents the semi-confined aquifer conditions prevalent in the Nile Delta. The second case study is a Canal, situated in Sharqia governorate, represents the phreatic aquifer conditions present in the Nile Delta. Piezometers were implemented to determine the groundwater levels and for the calibration process. The calibrated models were employed to simulate the expected impacts of canal lining for each case and contrasted with pre-lining infiltration rates. Findings indicate that while canal lining effectively reduces water seepage into shallow groundwater in sandy soils, it is of little avail in clayey top soils. The research recommends implementing integrated water resource management to mitigate the possible impacts of lining. It also suggests prioritizing regular maintenance practices for canal linings, especially in areas with sandy soils.

CROP WATER CONSUMPTION MODELLING AT OUTLET LEVEL BY USING REMOTE SENSING AND GIS

The enlarged demand of water due to agriculture expansion, increasing industrial and domestic needs, compounded with climate change is causing scarcity of water globally and Pakistan is also facing same conditions. Due to limited availability of water, it is necessary to adopt global best practices being employed for sustainable agricultural water management. Remote sensing techniques are being intensively used around the globe with confidence to monitor the crops growth and crop water use. The aim of the research is to develop crop water consumption monitoring system at the outlet level to regulate irrigation water distribution at farm level. Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL) is used to develop pilot case study for year 2017-18 at a distributary canal command level named 5R-Yousafwala located in Sahiwal District. Crop classification based on Landsat-8 imagery was provided by Punjab Irrigation Department. Landsat-8 and Sentinel-2 images were acquired for NDVI monitoring. Metrological data for Penman Monteith based evapotranspiration calculation was acquired from Global Land Data Assimilation System (GLDAS). Analogue cadastral maps of outlet command areas were converted to digital georeferenced format. The provided crop classification was verified after discussion with farmers during detailed field survey. In Rabi season of 2017-18, mean evapotranspiration (ET) actual was estimated about 352 mm, while in Kharif season of 2018, it was estimated as 425 mm. The crop water deficit was estimated as 36 % in rabi season and 30 % in kharif season. Irrigation share was only 37 % in Rabi season and 48% in Kharif season. Rainfall contributed 09 % in Rabi season and 30% in Kharif season. Groundwater was paramount contributor with 54 % share in rabi season while in Kharif season it contributed relatively minor share of 22%. The ET potential and ET actual fluctuate in all outlet commands due to the diverse crop cover and economic capacity to pump groundwater. The results could be proved very useful for irrigation department to monitor and reform the irrigation supplies at particular outlets by observing the crop demand, weather conditions and crop stage instead of monitoring outlet discharge only.

Performance Evaluation and Water Availability of Canal Irrigation Scheme in Punjab Pakistan

The supply of surface water by century-old infrastructure causes substantial water loss and triggers huge abstractions of groundwater, resulting in low irrigation efficiency. We evaluated the irrigation performance (application and conveyance efficiencies) and water availability (supply-demand) from the field to the Mungi Distributary canal level in Punjab, Pakistan. Between April–September 2019 and 2020, we monitored water delivery in the canal network, soil moisture content in cotton fields, and the canal and groundwater quality. The crops’ actual evapotranspiration was estimated using the AquaCrop model. We found conveyance efficiencies >90% for minor distributaries, 70–89% for watercourses, and ~75% for field ditches per kilometer. Field application efficiency was >90% for drip and ~35% for flood basin, whereas for raised-bed furrow, conventional furrow, and ridge-furrow irrigation methods, it varied between 44% and 83%. The deficits of canal water supply versus demand for cotton fields ranged from 45% to 73%, whereas the Mungi Distributary canal water showed a 68.6% and 19.8% shortfall in the April–September and October–March seasons of 2018/2019, respectively. The study suggests prioritizing improvements to field water application rather than canals with better water quality; additionally, surplus water from the Mungi canal in November and December could be stored for later use.

Optimal cropping pattern for a tail-end distributary canal of Bhadra command area using linear programming model

Optimal cropping pattern for a tail-end distributary canal of Bhadra command area using linear programming model

A NEW APPROACH FOR WATER ALLOCATION SCHEDULING IN IRRIGATION OPEN CHANNELS CASE STUDY: ALMANNA MAIN CANAL, AND ITS BRANCHES

In Egypt, the Agriculture sector consumes about 85.90% of the total actual consumption of water. With population growth, expansion of economic and industrial activities and entry of Egypt into the stage of water poverty, rationalization of the consumption of irrigation water has become an urgent requirement and a key factor in achieving sustainable water development. Although crops may need different water quantities during their growth stages, irrigation canals are constantly supplied with almost the same monthly discharge during periods of peak or minimum requirements. The objective of this study is to activate a new approach for the reasonable management of the irrigation network for the study area. This approach allows the canals network to be supplied with monthly discharges consistent with the actual water consumption of the cultivated plant. Also, it helps in rationalizing consumption during the agricultural season. The new approach was applied to Almanna main canal and its branches which belong to the Assiut governorate in Egypt, as an example of the irrigation system in Egypt. Rotational distribution is practiced at the distributary canal level. The results indicated that applying the new approach on Almanna distributary canals can save a large amount of irrigation water that reaches about 19.375 Million cubic meters monthly, representing 48.68% of all irrigation water given to Almanna distributary canals. Also, the percentage value of the new discharges of Almanna distributary canals, which calculated according to the water needs of crops cultivated in the area, ranged between 32 and 67% of the designed discharges.

Potential and net recharge assessment in paddy dominated Hirakud irrigation command of eastern India using water balance and geospatial approaches

Spatially distributed potential and net recharge rates were assessed in the paddy dominated Hirakud command area (Eastern India) at 100 m grid resolution using surface water balance and Water Table Fluctuation (WTF) methods, respectively, for the period 2001–05. Net recharge estimated using the WTF method corresponding to observation well locations was further interpolated using kriging technique available in the ArcGIS software. Net recharge to potential recharge ratios (%) were also assessed spatially. Water balance components (i) runoff was estimated using the Natural Resources Conservation Service-Curve Number (NRCS-CN) method (ii) reference evapotranspiration by (Hargreaves and Samani, Applied Engineering Agriculture ASABE 1:96–99, 1985)), crop evapotranspiration by (Allen et al., Crop evapotranspiration: Guidelines for computing crop water requirements, FAO Irrigation and Drainage, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, Italy, 1998) and evaporation from uncultivated lands by Ritchie (1972) approaches, and (iii) canal seepage using simple canal flow model. Annual groundwater draft during Kharif and Rabi was found to be 144.41 and 112.49 ha-m, respectively. Nearly, 90% of the study area contributed runoff in the range of 200–400 mm during the years 2002–03, 2003–04, and 2004–05. The estimated seepage losses vary between 5 and 15% of irrigation depth for all distributaries. Potential groundwater recharge during wet, normal, and dry years ranges between 650 and 1033 mm, and equivalent to 67%, 78%, and 60% of annual rainfall, respectively. Net recharge ranges between 8 and 11% of the annual rainfall. Mean ratio between net recharge to potential recharge is nearly 30%, indicating that nearly 70% of potential recharge is accounted as outflow from the study area. Parmanpur distributary canal located at the centre of the study area that exhibited higher potential recharge can be scheduled at the end to avoid water logging problem. Further, extraction of groundwater during non-monsoon period for irrigation purpose not only helps in controlling waterlogging but also helps in maintaining stable groundwater level. Overall, spatio-temporal distribution of recharge in the command area indicated that the irrigation demands during non-monsoon season can be met through sustainable management of underexploited groundwater resources. Such an integrated management of surface and groundwater can help in improving water use efficiencies as well as agricultural productivity.

New technique for preparing and reusing agricultural drainage water safely in irrigation

Abstract Not so long ago, due to the great shortage of irrigation water, Egypt on the national level, began to mix (in a certain percentage) raw agricultural drainage water with fresh irrigation water. This mix was for enhancing its quality to be compatible with the proper specifications and standards of irrigation water, for using it safely in the irrigation process, to compensate for the severe shortage of available quantities of irrigation water. In some regions, and local farms, to save their crops farmers were forced to use the drainage water available in the nearby area drains for irrigation due to the problem of insufficient water in the distributary canals. Such use of raw drainage water can cause great harm and has a negative impact on the environment generally, especially on aquatic and agricultural life. Therefore, in this study we aim to introduce an efficient, simple, cheap mobile treatment unit. This new introduced treatment unit can be used locally on farms to solve the problem of insufficient quantities of irrigation water, and also in some cases where the irrigation water, for various reasons, does not reach the ends of some irrigation canals thus causing a serious problem for farmers. The new introduced treatment unit, using some environmentally friendly cheap materials in certain tested quantities and doses, through three designed cylindrical filtration containers connected with each other respectively, succeeded in converting raw contaminated drainage agricultural water into safe water that can be safely and directly used in the irrigation process.

Analysis of seepage loss from concrete lined irrigation canals in Punjab, Pakistan

ABSTRACT/RÉSUMÉ (ABSTRACT for English and RÉSUMÉ for French)A significant amount of water is lost in canals due to seepage. This could be saved to irrigate barren land. This article presents the measured seepage data by the inflow‐outflow method on seven so‐called concrete‐lined distributary canals in Punjab, Pakistan. A special feature of the inflow‐outflow method is the relatively long lengths of the canal reaches (9 to 5 km), which is the longest one could find in the literature so far. The seepage in canals is also calculated using five empirical formulae. The results show that the Swamee and the Punmia formulae performed admirably with mean percent errors of −20% and + 19% respectively. Moritz formula stood at +53% while Kostiakov scored +158%. The research also proposed a slight modification in the Swamee formula whereby, instead of the canal width, the surface water width was used in the calculation of the dimensionless variable F. This led to a beneficial effect of bringing down the percent mean error from −42% to −20%. © 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Sustainable optimization of regional agricultural water use by developing a two-level optimization model

The present study applies a two-level optimization model. The first-level objective is to optimize the cropping pattern in the whole grid based on the amount of water consumed per crop. The second-level objective is to maximize the profit and minimize the disruption of water resource sustainability in branch and distributary canals in the district of Qazvin, Iran. Based on the results of the first-level objective, the scenario of a 10% reduction in irrigation water increased economic productivity at various levels by an average of 25 USD per cubic meter of water while maintaining proper income. The second-level results indicated a 64% increase in net profit compared to the profit associated with the existing cropping pattern due to (a) the reduction of crops of low profitability in the cultivated area and (b) the increase of high-profitability crops in the cultivated area. On the other hand, according to the considered objective functions, the amount of water consumed in optimal conditions reduced from 100 of water allocated to 80%.

HYDRAULIC PERFORMANCE OF IMPROVED IRRIGATION SYSTEM

Irrigation canals network in Egypt for all levels suffer from water deficit and un-equitable distribution of irrigation water among beneficiaries. So, its modernization became omnipresent to overcome the problem of water shortage by the end of canals. One of the improvement sectors of irrigation canals network is replacing an earthen mesqa by upraised lines or buried pipes. The hydraulic performance of the improved irrigation system is explored using a case study canal, where buried pipes system is applied as improved mesqa system. The case study is for the Hadaya canal which is one of the distributary canals that located in Assiut governorate. This canal services 19 mesqas with different lengths and area served. The hydraulic performance of mesqas is examined through different scenarios of operation of the mesqa pumping station and area served. Three scenarios of mesqa valves operation are considered .The first scenario is when all valves are operated at the same time all over the week. The second is when one valve operates for two days per week and the third is when all valves operate for one day. Also, three scenarios are considered for pump operation 14, 16 and 18 hours per day. Moreover, effect of different scenarios of mesqa operation on sudden transition of flow in pipes due to pump shut-down is studied. EPANET software was used for the hydraulic analysis. It was found that operating the pump 14 hours per day fulfill the minimum monthly cost. Also, operating the outlet valves according to scenario no. (3) gives the least operating cost. The maximum velocity in the pipeline is less than 1.2 m/s for all operating scenarios. Besides, effects of mesqas off-takes on the flow in distributary canal are studied.

Analysis the Operational Performance of Outlet Structures of a Secondary Level Irrigation Canal Using the SIC-Model with the Kifil-Shinafiya Project as a Case Study

The analysis and evaluation of actual hydraulic operation at the level of a distributary canal (secondary level) and its related outlets is based on suitable hydraulic indicators such as equitability (PE), dependability (PD), adequacy (PA), and flexibility (F); this is the basic goal of the present study, which uses the hydrodynamic Simulation Irrigation Canal model (SIC) for the first time in an analysis in Iraq. One of the distributary canals in the Kifil-Shinafiya project (KSP), located at the middle of Iraq, was selected for the study of these indicators by evaluation of the gaps between demand flows and actual deliveries at the outlet structures along the canal. The selected canal serves an area of 710 hectares with, alongside the head regulator, sixteen outlet structures and two cross regulators. The study includes a range of field measurements such as the actual water levels and the actual corresponding discharges at outlets for twenty-four months, covered four cropping seasons, over two years, as eight measurements were taken per month at each outlet from October 2014 to September 2016. The maximum measured discharge at the head regulator during the study period was smaller than the design discharge. The results showed that the equity indicator (PE) was generally good, except for the months of May and October; while the dependability indicator (PD) was good in all head outlets but it was only fair for other outlets. The adequacy indicator (PA) was poor throughout the study period. The dependability and adequacy indicators in the winters were seen to be better than in the summers.

Utilization of tail-escape weir for water conservation in distributary canals

Egypt is facing an increasing problem of water deficit for irrigation and other uses. Most of the Egyptian distributary irrigation canals are operated using the rotational system where water is discharged continuously during irrigation period. However, farmers rarely irrigate during night hours and a significant amount of water is lost to drains. A strategy to reduce these water losses may be adopted by suggesting better operational abstraction patterns from off-takes that are distributed along the canal and by changing the tail-escape weir heights. An unsteady-flow model is developed to study the effects of different canal parameters: weir height, canal length and slope and off-takes abstraction time on the amount of water losses. It is found that water losses are significantly affected by the weir height and the abstraction time at the off-takes. Longer and milder canals provide more storage thus reducing water losses. Adequacy indicator for water supply considerably improves for longer abstraction time. A non-prismatic and deteriorated canal is investigated and results shows that deterioration of the canal cross-sections creates an additional storage and reduces water losses. However, deterioration has negative side effects in reducing canal conveyance and lowering water levels.

IoT Enabled Analysis of Irrigation Rosters in the Indus Basin Irrigation System

The Indus Basin Irrigation System (IBIS) is the world's largest contiguous irrigation system, irrigating over 2.5 million acres and running over 90,000 km of watercourses. It ensures equitable water distribution to farmers through irrigation rosters or warabandi (literally meaning “taking turns”) which is a fixed-turn rotation system following a time roster issued by the government agencies. To study this irrigation system, we have developed an Internet-of-Things (IoT) inspired custom-built water metering network, capable of near real-time reporting of flow discharges through GPRS and backend server services. In 2013-14, a network of flow meters was deployed on 17 distributary canals in the Hakra Branch Canal command in IBIS covering more than two cropping seasons. By comparing the captured water distribution data (sampled every 10 minutes) with Punjab Irrigation Department (PID) issued warabandi rosters, an analysis of the warabandi rosters is presented in this paper.

A SIMPLIFIED MULTI‐OBJECTIVE GENETIC ALGORITHM OPTIMIZATION MODEL FOR CANAL SCHEDULING

ABSTRACTA simplified Multi‐Objective Genetic Algorithm Optimization Model (MOM‐GA) for canal scheduling under unequal flow rates of distributary canals is presented in this paper. This MOM‐GA was designed for dynamic rotational scheduling with two objectives: to reduce fluctuations of flow rates of superior canals, and to reduce seepage losses of canal systems. This model was programmed in MATLAB using its genetic algorithm functions. Application of this model was demonstrated with a case study of the Nanguan Main Canal system (NMC) in the Gaoyou Irrigation Area, China. The results demonstrated that the MOM‐GA is an effective model for optimizing canal scheduling. NMC keeps running under a relatively steady range, and the seepage losses are reduced by around half that under current and binary optimized scheduling. The MOM‐GA is also sufficiently flexible to be applied to different levels in canal systems as a simplified approach for canal scheduling design and operation. The optimization results given by MOM‐GA can assist irrigators to make better canal scheduling decisions in each irrigation event. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Study of feasibility of night-closure of irrigation canals for water saving

The feasibility of closing distributary canals at night was investigated in a recently modernized surface irrigation system in Pakistan, the Upper Swat-Pehur High Level Canal system. Increased water supply, greater delivery capacity and the introduction of downstream control potentially allow more flexible service. In the command area of Maira branch of this system, farmers are anyway abandoning night-time irrigation, as they can meet their needs from improved supply during the day. They practice night irrigation only during the times of peak crop water demand. The rotational delivery system, known as warabandi in the sub-continent and Dauran in Arabian countries, has even broken down in the day in some parts of the command area. This is believed to be typical of systems with more than adequate water supply. A simulation study was undertaken using the CanalMan software developed by Biological & Irrigation Department, Utah State University, Utah Logan, USA. Primary data collected in one distributary canal and the two minors connected to it was utilized for simulations. The feasibility of night-time closure depends on the speed of filling and emptying the canal each day, and the time required to meet full irrigation demand during the day. The results show that where canal lengths are less than 5 km, in this system, there is good potential to make savings, which can be realized at system level through reduced demand on supplemental supplies from Tarbela Dam.

Water management decisions on small farms under scarce canal water supply: A case study from NW India

The study investigates the present state and the scope of improvement in farmers’ water management decisions for improving agricultural productivity in a water scarce canal irrigation system of Haryana, India. The study was undertaken in six watercourses located in different reaches of two distributary canals with command area of about 4000 ha each. Water management, as practiced at field as well as at watercourse level, was studied. The study suggested that the rigid water delivery schedules and the degree of water inadequacy provided very limited scope to the farmers for decision making in respect of canal water management. Farmers’ decisions were largely confined to operation of the tube wells to alleviate part of the canal water deficit. The highly inadequate canal water supply and poor quality of groundwater created variation in farmers’ decision in crop choices during summer season while in the winter season wheat was grown as the sole crop. The higher exploitation of groundwater, besides keeping water table under control, to some extent increased crop yields in tail reaches. But water quality being marginal, the yields in the tail watercourses were lower by 10–20% in case of wheat and 20–40% in case of rice when compared with the head watercourses. The water productivity can be increased to some extent by resorting to crop diversification and by cultivation of salt tolerant high yielding varieties of crops. Fresh and brackish water aquaculture also offers opportunity to improve both water productivity as well as income of the farming community in the region.

Effectiveness of Electrical Fish Barriers Associated with the Central Arizona Project

Abstract The Central Arizona Project (CAP) canal delivers Colorado River water into the Gila River basin. During its planning and construction, issues arose regarding the unwanted entrainment and transport of nonindigenous fishes and other aquatic biota into, through, and out of the canal. One control strategy was the emplacement of electrical fish barriers on two CAP distributary canals to prevent fishes from moving upstream into the Gila River drainage. The operation, maintenance, and effectiveness of these barriers are described for the period 1988–2000. Documented outages totaled more than 100 h, representing less than 0.001% downtime since installation. It is nearly certain that outages allowed immigration by undesired fish(es). Immigrations that occurred when the barriers were operating according to design criteria indicate that the barriers do not totally block the passage of upstream-migrating fish. The proximate sources of electrical barrier outage included component damage from lightning strikes...

Late Weichselian and Holocene palaeogeography of the Rhine–Meuse delta, The Netherlands

A large number of lithological borehole descriptions, 14C dates, archaeological artefacts, and gradients of palaeochannels were used to reconstruct the Holocene development of the Rhine–Meuse delta. Data were stored in a Geographical Information System database that enables generation of palaeogeographical maps for any time during the Holocene. The time resolution of the palaeogeographic reconstruction is about 200 years. During the Holocene, avulsion was an important process, resulting in frequent shifts of areas of clastic sedimentation. Palaeogeographic evolution of the Rhine–Meuse delta is mainly governed by complex interactions among several factors. These are: (1) Location and shape of the Late Weichselian palaeovalley. (2) Sea-level rise, which resulted in back-filling of the palaeovalley. (3) Peat formation, which was most extensive in the western part of the back-barrier area especially between 4000 and 3000 14C yr BP. This more or less fixed the river pattern at that time and resulted in few avulsions. (4) Neotectonics. Differential tectonic movements of the Peel Horst and Roer Valley Graben seem to have influenced river behaviour (formation of an asymmetrical meander belt, location of avulsion nodes), especially from 4500 to 2800 14C yr BP when the rate of sea-level rise had decreased. After 2800 14C yr BP, the sea-level rise further decreased, and the tectonic influence still may have influenced avulsions, but from then on, other factors became dominant. (5) Increased discharge, sediment load and/or within-channel sedimentation. After 2800 14C yr BP, river meanders of Rhine distributaries as well as the single channel of the Meuse show remarkable increases in wavelength, interpreted as a result of increased bankfull discharge and sediment load. Increased discharge may initially have been caused by a higher precipitation. After 2000 14C yr BP, both discharge and sediment load seem to have increased as a result of human influence. Alternatively, decreasing gradients (as a result of sea-level rise) may have caused an increased within-channel sedimentation and channel widening, which would also lead to increased meander wavelengths. (6) Composition of the river banks. Meandering river channels tend to adhere to the sandy margins of the Late Weichselian palaeovalley, and a high channel sinuosity is found in areas where river banks consist of sand. (7) Marine ingressions, e.g., the AD 1421 St. Elizabeth's flood, caused large-scale erosion in the southwestern part of the fluvial deltaic plain. (8) Human influence. Since about AD 1100 human influence dominated the palaeogeographic evolution. Rivers were embanked and dredged, meanders were cut off, and for the Meuse, a new distributary canal (the Bergsche Maas) was dug in AD 1904. Discharge distribution over the various channels is strictly controlled nowadays. An unusual feature of the delta is the prolonged existence of the Oude Rijn channel belt.

Impacts of Irrigation and Drainage Development Projects in Pakistan: Farmers’ Perceptions

Using well-designed sample, anecdotal evidence from farmers of a recently completed irrigation and drainage project in Bhawalnagar Pakistan, valuable impact indicators could be assessed. The case study suggests that although this simple and quick method is not a substitute for the detailed scientific survey, yet it can be handy, sufficient, and could be usefully used at a nominal cost as a supplementary method. The parameters approached were the depth to water-table, crop yields, cropping pattern, abandoned lands, water distribution, and seepage reduction, etc. The results showed that some of these, including the depth to water-table, seepage reduction, and cropping pattern compared well with previous technical studies, while some others did not. The physical interventions of the project under quick evaluation comprised concrete lining of about 170 kms of the distributary canals and 352 kms of surface drains. The paper concludes that the farmers’ perceptions, when carefully designed and analysed, offer substantial feedback for remedial actions and for planning future projects.

A new planning model for canal scheduling of rotational irrigation

Water distribution systems often have multi-objectives such as equity, adequacy and timeliness. The canal systems distributing the water have different design capacities, command areas and lengths requiring different duration of operation. Irrigation scheduling under these conditions especially for rotational water distribution becomes a complex process. Optimisation techniques have limitations in the above situations either because of their pre-defined mathematical structure or because of the computational requirements to represent the reality. Hence, this study purports to develop a new multi-criteria approach for scheduling the rotational distribution system on a weight basis. Application of this model is demonstrated with an example of an irrigation system in India where rotational distribution is practised at distributary canal level. The results indicate that the performance of the water distribution system is better with the present model compared to the conventional scheduling procedure used. The concept can be extended to any level of rotational distribution, starting from main canal down to farm outlets.