Distracted Walking Research Articles

The Prevalence of Distracted Walking While Using Mobile Technology: An Observational Study of High School Students in Kahramanmaras, Türkiye

Objective: Distracted walking is defined as any activity that diverts a pedestrian's attention from walking. The increasing addiction to mobile phone use has recently led to a rise in dangerous accidents caused by distracted walking. This study aimed to assess the prevalence and preventable causes of distracted walking among high school students crossing intersections with pedestrian crossings. Material and Methods: High school students (n=3237) between the ages of 14 and 18 from 10 different high schools, including 5 high schools in the Müze crossing area and 5 high schools in the Belediye crossing area, were observed while crossing the pedestrian crossing. Poisson regression was applied to determine the association between distracted walking and various factors, including the city, average household income in the surrounding area, type of pedestrian crossing, and the gender of pedestrians. Results: A total of 3237 students were observed walking near 10 high schools in the city centre of Turkey, of whom 1514 exhibited distracted walking (45.77%). The estimated prevalence of distracted walking was 45.77% (95% CI 45.06-48.49%). Of the students who exhibited distracted walking, 85.5% were engaged in some way with their mobile phones. The highest rate was observed in the group looking down and/or using their phones (62.81%). Conclusion: Our study reveals striking results about the distracted walking behavior of pedestrians in dense urban areas. The high rate of distracted walking among students indicates significant pedestrian-oriented security weaknesses. This study underscores the importance of addressing distracted walking to improve pedestrian safety and prevent potential accidents in urban environments.

Validity of the Smombie Scale: Sensitivity and specificity in identifying pedestrian risk group.

The objective of this study was to determine the most effective cut-off point for the Smombie Scale and evaluate its ability to screen for pedestrian safety risks among young adults. Data were obtained from an online sample of 396 Korean young adults aged 18-39 years. Latent profile analysis was used to distinguish the risk group as a reference measure for the Smombie Scale. Discriminative power was assessed using sensitivity, specificity, receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves, and the area under the ROC curve. The cut-off points were estimated from the Youden index and the balanced score. The latent profile analysis showed two different classes: "risk group" of 17.8% and "others." Based on the latent profile analysis, sensitivity, and specificity analysis showed that an adequate cut-off point of 2.78 of five points or higher was associated with a high risk of distracted walking. The Smombie Scale is a good predictor of problematic smartphone use on the road and can be used as a screening tool for assessing risk levels among young adult pedestrians.

Altered gait parameters in distracted walking: a bio-evolutionary and prognostic health perspective on passive listening and active responding during cell phone use.

The underpinnings of bipedal gait are reviewed from an evolutionary biology and prognostic health perspective to better understand issues and concerns related to cell phone use during ambulation and under conditions of distraction and interference. We also consider gait-related health issues associated with the fear of or risk of falling and include prognostic dimensions associated with cognitive decline, dementia, and mortality. Data were acquired on 21 healthy young adults without hearing loss, vestibular, balance, otological or neurological dysfunction using a computerized walkway (GAITRite® Walkway System) combined with specialized software algorithms to extract gait parameters. Four experimental conditions and seven temporo-spatial gait parameters were studied: gait velocity, cadence, stride length, ambulatory time, single-support time, double-support time, and step count. Significant main effects were observed for ambulation time, velocity, stride velocity, and double-support time. The greatest impact of distraction and interference occurred during the texting condition, although other significant effects occurred when participants were verbally responding to queries and passively listening to a story. These experimental observations show that relatively simple distraction and interference tasks implemented through the auditory sensory modality can induce significant perturbations in gait while individuals were ambulating and using a cell phone. Herein, emphasis is placed on the use of quantifiable gait parameters in medical, psychological, and audiological examinations to serve as a foundation for identifying and potentially averting gait-related disturbances.

Watch your step: A pilot study of smartphone use effect on young females’ gait performance while walking up and down stairs and escalators

The increasingly ubiquitous use of smartphones has made distracted walking common, not only on flat ground, but also on stairs. Available information regarding changes in gait performance while walking and using a smartphone in different environments is still lacking. We aimed to investigate the differences in gait behavior and subjective walking confidence while walking up and down stairs and escalators, with and without smartphone use. A field experiment involving 32 female adults was conducted at a subway station. Gait parameters collected included step frequency, acceleration root mean square, step variability, step regularity, and step symmetry. The results showed that walking task, walking environment, and walking direction significantly affected gait performance and walking confidence. Overall, playing games or texting while walking down escalators resulted in the lowest walking confidence and the largest gait performance decrement: slower step frequency; reduced root mean square; decreased step regularity and step symmetry; and increased step variability. Step frequency, step variability, and step regularity significantly correlated with walking confidence. Smartphone use while walking on stairs and escalators significantly affects gait behavior and might increase the risk of falls. Interventions and prevention are needed to increase safety education and hazard warnings for the general population.

Do mobile phone addiction, boredom proneness, and self-reported mindfulness predict pedestrian beliefs on distracted walking?

Pedestrian distraction is a major causal factor reported in pedestrian fatalities worldwide. Even though many observational studies and laboratory-based research have been conducted to examine the influence of pedestrian distraction on road safety, there is little understanding of the determinants of pedestrian beliefs that influence distracted walking behaviour. The present study examines the associations of pedestrian beliefs related to engagement in mobile phone distraction with psychological factors such as mobile phone addiction, boredom proneness, and mindfulness. Five hundred and fifty-one participants completed a questionnaire about their distraction beliefs (behavioural, normative, and control), mobile phone addiction, boredom proneness, and mindfulness. A Structural Equation Model (SEM) was developed to investigate the influence of mobile phone addiction, boredom proneness, and mindfulness on the three types of beliefs. Mobile phone addiction was significantly associated with behavioural beliefs (factor loading = 0.38) and control beliefs (factor loading = 0.23) but not with normative beliefs. Further, significant associations of boredom proneness were observed with all three types of beliefs: behavioural (factor loading = 0.15), normative (factor loading = 0.13), and control (factor loading = 0.15). Mindfulness showed significant relationships with normative beliefs (factor loading = 0.13) and control beliefs (factor loading = 0.11) but not with behavioural beliefs. This study is the first attempt to investigate the predictors of pedestrian distraction beliefs in the Indian context. The findings can assist the policymakers in understanding the pedestrian psychology behind their distracted walking behaviour.

Child Pedestrian Safety.

The field of pedestrian safety has advanced with new evidence related to pediatric pedestrian education, the risks of distracted walking, the benefits of design and programming in safe routes to school, and the emergence of the "Vision Zero" strategy to eliminate all traffic fatalities and severe injuries while increasing safe, healthy, equitable mobility for all. This statement is a revision of the 2009 American Academy of Pediatrics policy statement "Pedestrian Safety" and is accompanied by a technical report (www.pediatrics.org/cgi/doi/10.1542/peds.2023-062508) providing additional detail to support recommendations. This statement is intended to assist practicing pediatricians to offer evidence-based advice to families about the benefits of active transportation and the specific risks and safety precautions to consider for child pedestrians at different ages. For community pediatricians and the American Academy of Pediatrics, the statement provides an overview of specific programs and policies that, if implemented, could foster independent mobility for children while increasing pediatric pedestrian safety. This statement identifies trends in public health and urban design relevant to pedestrian safety.

Epidemiology and Prevention of Child Pedestrian Injury.

This report supports policy recommendations in the accompanying policy statement "Child Pedestrian Safety" (www.pediatrics.org/cgi/doi/10.1542/peds.2023-62506). It reviews trends in public health and urban design relevant to pedestrian safety and provides information to assist practicing pediatricians discussing the benefits of active transportation and the specific risks and safety precautions to consider for child pedestrians at different ages. The report offers the evidence base for which programs and policies that, if implemented, could foster independent mobility for children while increasing pediatric pedestrian safety. Since the previous policy statement was published in 2009, the field of pedestrian safety has advanced with new evidence related to pediatric pedestrian education, the risks of distracted walking, the benefits of design and programming in safe routes to school, and the emergence of the "Vision Zero" public health and safety initiatives to prevent all serious and fatal transportation injuries.

Predictors of distractive activities to walking in Accra, Ghana

ABSTRACT Walking is a fundamental mode of transport for many people globally, with immense health and environmental benefits. However, increased walking is associated with an increased risk of road traffic crashes and injuries, especially where traffic enforcement is poor, and pedestrians could easily be distracted. Despite this, a plethora of evidence exists on driver distraction; however, there is a dread of evidence of pedestrian distraction (i.e. distracted walking), particularly in Africa. This paper uses a quantitative methodology to examine the predictors of distractive activities to walking in Accra, Ghana. The study surveyed 400 pedestrians within Accra’s Central Business District (CBD). A questionnaire was deployed via Kobo Toolkit and Jamovi was used in analysing the data. The study observed that three of the top four distractive activities to walking were digital devices-related (e.g. the use of mobile phones). We found that listening to music, making, receiving phone calls, and conversing with other people while walking are the main distractive activities. The binary logistic regression model found sex, age, level of education, occupation, reasons for walking, weekly time for walking and time for common trips as significant predictors of distractive activities to walking.

Texting and crossing: An extended theory of planned behaviour to model the psychological and demographic factors related to pedestrians' use of cell phone for texting at crosswalks in developing country

The distraction of road users is one of the leading causes of road crashes. In general, distraction in road crashes is often associated with only driving, not walking, however, several studies have highlighted distracted walking as a major cause for road crashes and have also examined distracted walking behaviour and its causes, but there is a paucity of such kind of literature in the context of developing or low-income countries, such as India. This study sought to fill this gap by examining factors that influence pedestrians' use of cell phones for texting while crossing the roads in the city of Bhopal, India. In the present study analysis of psychological factors and socio-economic factors that contribute to distracted walking/crossing was analysed using an extended version of the theory of planned behaviour (TPB). Using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation modelling (SEM), this study confirmed the validity of items under each factor of the TPB and then employed SEM to investigate the relationship between the latent variables (attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behaviour control), and demographic characteristics (age, income, and gender) of pedestrians with their intention to text while crossing the street. The results obtained from SEM indicated that the intention to use cell phones for texting at crosswalks was negatively impacted by age, and positively impacted by income level. A significant influence of attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behaviour control was found on the intention to use cell phones. Perceived behaviour control (PBC) was found as the most influential factor for predicting pedestrian intentions to use cell phones, followed by Subjective norms (SN). In addition, perceived behaviour control and the intention to use a cell phone also significantly affected crossing behaviour. The findings from the present study can significantly contribute to enhancing pedestrian safety in transportation research, and a better understanding of the factors contributing to pedestrian fatalities could lead towards safe system approach.

Cost–benefit analysis of a distracted pedestrian intervention

ObjectiveCellphone ubiquity has increased distracted pedestrian behaviour and contributed to growing pedestrian injury rates. A major barrier to large-scale implementation of prevention programmes is unavailable information on potential monetary benefits....

Falling for smartphones: A smartphone-centric data collection tool for measuring distracted walking

Falls and severe head injurieshave been increasingly associated with the use ofsmartphoneswhile walking.Agrowing bodyof academic researchidentifiescognitive, perceptual, and motor deficits causedbysmartphone use while walking. Despite the dangers associated withsmartphone use while walking, the true prevalencecan be challenging to assess.To better address the growing injury risk related to smartphone-induced distraction, we have built a smartphone-based data collection tool to assess smartphone use frequency while walking. In the current study, 35 participants installed the data collection app on their Android smartphones. On average, the application collected 520 data points per day. The application also indicated participants walked 12% of their day, and 49% of their time walking included smartphone use. The current study demonstrates the prevalence of smartphone-induced distraction while walking and smartphone applications' potential efficacy to collect behavioral data.

The range of visual detection of ground-level cues during distracted walking: Effect of cue contrast and walking speed

Walking while distracted by a smartphone has been a major safety concern for pedestrians. Visual and cognitive attention paid to the smartphone while walking with the head tilted downward would affect the ability to perceive walkway hazards and elevate risks for pedestrian accidents associated with physical contact with obstacles. A laboratory experiment was conducted to evaluate the performance of detecting ground-level visual cues during texting while walking. Forty young smartphone users performed walking trials at faster, preferred, and slower speeds for the dual-task walking on a treadmill and detected approaching cues of three contrast levels. Detection distance was quantified from the location of cue detection to the participants to assess the effects of walking speed and cue contrast on detection performance. Results show that detection distance varied from 1.7 m to 2.9 m for Low to High contrast cues and from 2.3 m to 2.5 m for Slower to Faster walking speeds, and the effects of contrast and speed were statistically significant (p < 0.05). Study findings suggest that higher contrast fixtures or in-ground signals and slower walking would help smartphone users perceive walkway hazards and in-ground safety signals earlier during their distracted walking.

Investigating the role of beliefs in influencing the hand-held and hands-free mobile phone use among pedestrians in India

Mobile phone distraction is a significant contributor to pedestrian injuries. However, mobile phone engagement among pedestrians has been scarcely explored in a developing country like India. The present study utilized the beliefs-based theory of planned behaviour to examine the association between pedestrian beliefs towards distracted walking (behavioural, normative, and control) and their mobile phone use frequencies. Based on a survey of 560 pedestrians (64.6% males), it was found that the major use of mobile phones was for listening to music (30.7%), followed by receiving a call (25%), making a call (18.9%), texting (9.8%), navigation (8.5%) and internet browsing (7.1%). A series of multivariate ANOVAs and logistic regression models were developed to investigate the relationships between the beliefs and frequencies of mobile phone use in hands-free and hand-held conditions. Significant multivariate differences were found for behavioural and normative beliefs in hands-free conditions and all three types of beliefs in hand-held conditions. The frequency of mobile phone use was significantly predicted by normative beliefs (p < 0.001) in the hands-free condition, and by behavioural (p = 0.041) and normative beliefs (p = 0.004) in the hand-held condition. The findings may assist the road safety countermeasures in addressing the issue of pedestrian distraction.

Risk perception and distraction engagement with smart devices in different types of walking environments

ObjectiveThe present study aims to: 1) determine whether the risks associated with distracted walking are influenced by walking environment by estimating the incidence and severity of phone-related distracted walking injuries; and 2) investigate individuals’ perceptions of distracted walking risk within different walking environments to understand whether individuals are aware of the potential risks and the manner in which they understand those risks. BackgroundDistracted walking has been increasingly considered a public safety issue over the past few years. Research has focused on understanding the many factors that may influence pedestrians’ engagement with smart-devices in order to address this issue. Risk perception may be one factor that guides engagement decisions but has not been widely studied in the context of distracted walking. Risk perception and the consequences of distracted walking are likely to be impacted by the walking environment, however, current research has typically focused on a subset of locations— streets and intersections. MethodThis study used the National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (NEISS), a national database of injuries due to consumer products, to understand the number and severity of distracted walking injuries and locations where it occurred. Phone related injury cases from 2011 to 2019 were extracted and categorized by two independent raters in terms of cause of injury and location of injury. An online questionnaire, N = 207, was used to understand how individuals’ perception of risk in five different walking environments (intersections, stairwells, hallways, pedestrian plazas, and parking lots) were related to distraction engagement. Risk perception was measured through three different framings: risk of distracted walking (i.e., overall risk of engaging with the behavior), risk of collision and risk of falls (e.g., risks associated with the consequences of engaging with the behavior). ResultsThe NEISS analysis showed an upward trend of distracted walking injuries from 2011 (2184 incidents) to 2019 (4711 incidents) and that the number of injuries differed across the different walking environments. The survey results showed that individuals varied their risk perception levels (risk of distracted walking, collision, and falls) based on the walking environment and distraction status (distraction and no distraction). The relationship between overall risk of distracted walking and the risks of the different consequences (falls & collision) differed by walking environment. Finally, significant negative correlations were found between risk perception and actual distraction engagement for each location.

Phone-Related Distracted Walking Injuries as a Function of Age and Walking Environment

Using phones while walking has been a factor that has led to accidents and injuries. However, few studies have analyzed the propensity of injuries due to distracted walking for different age groups and in different types of walking environments. This study aims to examine the number of emergency department (ED) visits due to distracted walking across different age groups and walking environments using a publicly available dataset, the National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (NEISS) database. The results suggest that there were an estimated 29140 distracted walking injuries between the years 2011-2019. Individuals between 11 and 20 years old had the most injuries, followed by 21 to 30, and 31 to 40. Furthermore, the proportion of estimated injuries that occurred in different walking environments differed across age groups. Safety-orient interventions for future research for stairs and home environments were also recommended in the present study.

Predictors of cellphone-related distracted walking among college students

ABSTRACT Distracted walking is dangerous, and the number of pedestrian injuries due to smartphone use has increased over time. Research is lacking at present on the reasons and motives for distracted walking. The present paper addresses this gap in the literature. We examine the nature and extent of cellphone-related distracted walking among college students and explore the role of the perceived benefits and costs of distracted walking, drawing on the Rational Choice approach. Multiple regression analysis based on survey data from a random sample of 940 college students revealed that perceptions of the necessity and safety of cellphone use predicted frequency of cellphone-related distracted walking, as did the moral belief that it was good to do so. Younger students and females were also more likely to engage in cellphone-related distracted walking. We consider the implications of the findings and provide recommendations to address this risky behavior.

Performance of ground-level signal detection when using a phone while walking

Ground-level traffic lights or safety signs have been introduced recently as a prevention measure for smartphone-related pedestrian accidents. However, quantitative evaluation of smartphone users' detection performance during distracted walking has been scarce. A laboratory experiment was conducted to evaluate the performance of detecting ground-level visual cues during the concurrent use of a smartphone while walking. Thirty-eight young smartphone users performed ground-level visual cue detection trials, 1) while walking upright on a treadmill without using a smartphone; 2) when conducting one-handed browsing while walking; and, 3) when conducting two-handed texting while walking. Visual cues were presented on the ground at 24 locations by a ceiling-mounted projector, and participants were asked to respond verbally when they perceived the appearance of each cue. Study results show that the concurrent use of a smartphone decreased the detection rate significantly (p < 0.05) from 93.5 % to 76.3∼74.1 %, and increased the reaction time from 0.90 s to 1.04∼1.15 s. Among the 24 cue locations, cues that were presented closer to participants were detected significantly (p < 0.05) more often and faster than cues that were shown at further locations. The results of this laboratory-based study imply that the ground-level signals might not be detected well by smartphone users, specifically when they were conducting more demanding tasks such as texting while walking. However, the laboratory conditions were confined to a specific usage environment; therefore, future research should be focused on the situation awareness of smartphone users under various usage scenarios and more realistic environments.

A comparison of workload demands imposed by different types of distracted walking tasks and its effect on gait

A growing body of research has found that distracted walking is a safety concern due to reduced situation awareness and the possibility of compromised gait performance. Distraction tasks, such as texting, browsing social media, and playing games, differ in terms of their physical and cognitive demands. However, few studies have examined whether there are differences in how physical and cognitive demands impact gait. The goal of this paper is to evaluate workload differences between four distraction tasks that represent common smartphone functions and may differ in terms of physical and cognitive demands: 1) No distraction, 2) Reading, 3) Tapping, 4) N-Back. We characterized the workload differences using three methods, a subjective workload assessment (NASA-TLX) and two physiological workload measures, pupil width and blink rate. Our results suggest that the chosen distraction tasks differ in their workload demands. While, a preliminary analysis of descriptive gait parameters failed to find significant differences between the distraction conditions, further analysis of more complex gait measures may be required to understand differences between physical and cognitive demands.

Influences of Smartphone Operation on Gait and Posture During Outdoor Walking Task

The ubiquity of smartphones has increased the engagement of phone use during street walking. Unfortunately, the risks of accidents and injuries caused by phone distracted walking are often overlooked. Several laboratory studies have shown that texting while walking can alter cognitive (e.g. reduced situation awareness) and physical (e.g. reduced walking speed) performance. However, the relationship between cognitive demands and the corresponding gait and posture adaptation is yet to be explored. Therefore, the purpose of the study was to investigate gait and posture responses caused by common smartphone usage of different cognitive loads during outdoor walking. Results showed a difference in gait behaviors between normal and phone distracted walking. Posture responses to phone operation tasks in varied cognitive workload levels were also observed to be different. Results from this study can be used as evidence for pedestrians of the recommended level of phone engagement in dynamic and public environments.

Investigation of traffic and safety behavior of pedestrians while texting or web-surfing

Objective: More and more pedestrians use mobile phones in their daily traffic activities by the roadside or even when crossing the street. The objective of this research is to examine pedestrians’ traffic and safety behavior while texting or web-surfing, when crossing signalized intersections.Methods: In order to compare the behavior of distracted and non-distracted pedestrians, an experimental process through video recording was carried out in real road conditions, in three signalized intersections in the center of Athens in Greece. Demographic and behavioral characteristics were observed, including use of mobile device. For the statistical analysis, two multiple linear regression models were developed to investigate the association of pedestrians’ speed and distraction caused by mobile phone use. Additionally, binary logistic regression models were developed in order to determine the influence of distraction on pedestrians’ safety characteristics and more specifically on near misses with oncoming vehicles.Results: Observers recorded crossing behaviors for 2,280 pedestrians and noticed that nearly one-fifth (16.6%) of them performed a phone-distracting activity while crossing. Distractions included texting or web-surfing (6.3%), listening to music (5.4%) and using a handheld phone (4.9%). Τhis research indicated that distraction caused by texting or web-surfing had a negative impact on pedestrians’ main traffic and safety characteristics. Results pointed out that in high pedestrian traffic, distracted pedestrians who were texting or web-surfing on their mobile phone present lower speed than non-distracted pedestrians, regardless of their age, as they may be not aware of traffic conditions due to distraction and therefore, they have higher crossing times. Furthermore, their probability of a near miss increases with increasing pedestrian volume as the more pedestrians who occupy the pedestrian crossing the more difficult is for them to observe carefully the rest traffic.Conclusions: Mobile phones are integral to contemporary daily life and their use and penetration is increasing rapidly as well. For this reason, it is crucial to investigate the impacts of distracted walking on pedestrians’ traffic and safety behavior. Various measures and strategies should be implemented and further research should be conducted as texting and web-surfing distraction is associated with a rather high risk.