Disproportionate Discipline Research Articles

Teacher Stress, Teacher Unintentional Bias, and Teacher Well-Being Before and During COVID-19

Almost half of all teachers in the United States report high levels of daily stress from teaching, making it one of the most stressful jobs in the country. Teacher stress is detrimental to one’s health and well-being, leading to poor academic outcomes for students and a hostile classroom environment, both barriers for young minds to learn. The COVID-19 pandemic and fear of personal health have exacerbated teacher stress levels. Individual factors that contribute to stress, such as being tired or making quick judgments, are linked to the tendency to rely on automatic cognitive processes (e.g., unintentional biases) rather than more controlled processes; these factors lead to discriminatory acts toward minoritized students. In the Vulnerable Decision Point model, the root causes of minoritized students' experiences of discriminatory acts of disproportionate discipline in schools are explained by the impact of stress on teachers’ automatic processing and unintentional racial bias (URB). Current research for teacher stress includes ways to identify and reduce stress but have only achieved moderate effect sizes driving the need to identify additional strategies for addressing teacher stress, such as teacher subjective well-being (SWB). SWB skills can include mindfulness, resiliency, and self-efficacy, thus providing opportunities to mitigate the effects of daily stressors on unintentional biases by being conscious of fast decision-making and escalation of unexpected behaviors. The data includes self-reports from middle school teachers who completed baseline demographic questionnaires and various scales prior to randomization and intervention implementation. This study aims to understand how preexisting conditions of teacher perceived stress and teacher SWB have perpetuated unintentional biases toward Black students and may have changed during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Seeking Direct Accountability for Disproportionate Discipline and Dis/ability Classification

Accountability for racially disproportionate discipline and dis/ability classification has conventionally spotlighted the disparate impact on students. Typically, findings such as “x% of African American students were suspended” or “y% of Latinx students were misidentified as having learning dis/abilities” reinforce this pattern. Our qualitative study sought the outlines of a different framing that locates accountability in practices, policies, and patterns of adult actors that produce those unjust outcomes. Practitioners, policy makers, researchers, and activists participated in this interview study by giving their perspectives on that reframing. Although their analyses fell short of directly holding the educational system accountable, they did highlight reforms such as increasing student agency in discipline and classification processes, expanding those processes to include a holistic analysis of students’ lives, and acknowledging that current accountability measures evade and obscure structural racism in discipline and dis/ability classification.

“You Take the Punches”: Native Youth Experiences of School Pushout

ABSTRACT Research suggests a crisis in Native American education. Disparities in academic success are well-documented and have persisted despite myriad intervention efforts. Utilizing a decolonial Youth Participatory Action Research methodology and mixed-methods design, a team of youth researchers and adult collaborators conducted iterative rounds of participatory education, data collection, and analysis. Through this process, we generated evidence of Native-specific school pushout practices or what we call “punches” delivered by the institution: schooling designed for dispossession, curricular harm, disproportionate discipline, and microaggressions/racism. Collectively, our findings support alternative interpretations of the crisis in Native American education and suggest the institution itself must be placed at the epicenter; schools must be accountable to their co-creation of this crisis. We recommend strategies to address these structural factors and pursue educational justice for Native youth.

4.2 STUDENT THREAT ASSESSMENT AS A STANDARD SCHOOL SAFETY PRACTICE

Leading authorities in education, law enforcement, and mental health recommend a systematic threat assessment approach to evaluate youth who threaten to commit a violent act. School providers do not want to overreact to threats that are not serious, yet they must recognize and take action in response to a serious threat in order to prevent a threat from being carried out. Farah Williams, PhD, will briefly review the use of the Comprehensive School Threat Assessment Guidelines (CSTAG), an evidence-based model for schools to use in conducting threat assessments in K-12 schools. The CSTAG focuses on the identification, assessment, and management of threats with a preventative and problem-solving approach. The guidelines allow providers to resolve less serious, transient threats quickly while focusing greater attention on more serious, substantive threats. The CSTAG has been extensively examined through field tests and controlled studies that demonstrate its utility and effectiveness. It has been widely adopted by schools nationwide and was recognized as an evidence-based program by the National Registry of Evidence-based Programs and Practices (NREPP) in 2013. Research comparing general-education and special-education students receiving a threat assessment using the CSTAG evidenced no statistically significant differences in terms of disciplinary sanctions. Similarly, no statistically significant differences in disciplinary sanctions were seen for White, Black, or Hispanic students when the CSTAG was used to evaluate threats made. School threat assessment teams using the CSTAG learn how to use a decision-tree process to efficiently assess whether a youth is not just making a threat but actually poses a threat of violence. Using this prevention- and intervention-focused, systematic approach promotes efficient identification and resolution of threats with less susceptibility to reactive, fear-based responses and less vulnerability to discriminatory biases that often come to light in threat assessment, including disproportionate discipline and suspension of our minority and special-education students.

Culturally Responsive Early Childhood Consultation

ABSTRACT Racially disproportionate discipline compromises children’s rights and perpetuates racial inequalities that begin in preschool. This paper describes the use of culturally responsive early childhood consultation that may be used to reduce preschool suspension and expulsion, focusing on increasing early childhood teachers’ cultural competence and use of instructional strategies to counter the racist educational practices inherent in early childhood educational systems. School psychologists are poised to engage in culturally responsive early childhood consultation given their training in cultural diversity and their expanding role to indirectly and proactively support early educators. Specific competencies are presented for school psychologists to target during culturally responsive consultation with early childhood teachers. While complex and difficult, culturally responsive early childhood consultation has the potential to support early educators to reflect on their own cultural identity, shift their perspectives about Black and Brown children and families, and decrease the likelihood that they will use harsh discipline practices.

Preventing the School-to-Prison Pipeline with a Few Research-Based Methods

The disproportionate discipline of students of color leads to many negative outcomes. The use of exclusionary school discipline contributes to this problem. This form of discipline has been shown to make students feel socially isolated and to prevent them from making academic progress. The causes of the disproportionate discipline of students of color involve a lack of teacher support and preparation, teacher misunderstandings, and the punitive systems often used in urban areas. Research on this topic reveals that certain practices would likely alleviate this problem. Some of these practices include implementing restorative discipline, providing better support for teachers, and hiring more teachers of color.

Moving away from disproportionate exclusionary discipline: developing and utilizing a continuum of preventative and instructional supports

Ample scientific research has documented that exclusionary discipline practices are both ineffective for reducing unwanted behaviors and harmful to the long-term social and academic outcomes of students. Further, exclusionary discipline practices are especially harmful given their disproportionate use with students of color, students with disabilities, students living in poverty, and students who are struggling academically. To address these issues, the authors describe a process that uses instructional strategies as alternatives to exclusion. These instructional strategies hold promise for reducing the use of disproportionate discipline, improving student behavior and social skills, and strengthening student–teacher relationships.

From “quick fix” to lasting commitment: Using root cause analysis to address disproportionate discipline outcomes

Root Cause Analysis (RCA) has been recommended as a specific problem-solving approach for addressing disproportionate discipline outcomes. RCA differs from other problem-solving models through its in-depth analysis that draws from the perspectives of individuals who are impacted by the issue being addressed. When applied to disproportionate discipline, this means that RCA would include perspectives from all school staff, as well as students and families who are over-represented in discipline outcomes. This paper describes an approach to conducting RCA and presents two case studies that illustrate what stakeholders may gain by incorporating RCA into a school’s efforts to increase disciplinary equity. Suggestions for first steps school teams can take to conduct a root cause analysis will be provided.

Implicit bias, disproportionate discipline, and teacher responsibility for instruction as prevention

While suspension continues to be a common response to student misbehavior in schools, evidence mounts for its ineffective and counterproductive results. Moreover, as the use of suspension increases, there is a tendency for it to be disproportionately applied to students of color and those with disabilities. Realizing that not all students are equally at-risk for suspension, the role of implicit bias in schools is a necessary consideration for all. The purpose of this paper is to consider the teacher’s role in minimizing the need for suspension by creating student success in the classroom and to present a conceptual framework for both the problem and a potential solution.

Exploring Disproportionate Discipline for Latinx Students With and Without Disabilities: A National Analysis

The Latinx population is the largest group of racially and ethnically diverse students in the United States. Although disproportionality in school discipline has been documented for Latinx students, findings related to such disparities have been inconsistent. We examined disciplinary exclusion practices involving students with and without disabilities who are Latinx across the United States using risk ratios (RR) and weighted mixed-effect models. We leveraged data from the Civil Rights Data Collection (CRDC) data set for the 2015 to 2016 academic school year, which included data from more than 94,000 schools. The CRDC is collected by the U.S. Department of Education’s Office of Civil Rights every 2 years. All U.S. public schools are required to submit data to the CRDC. Results suggest that Latinx students with and without disabilities were statistically significantly more likely to receive exclusionary discipline than White students, but less likely than Black students. Implications for research and practice are provided.

It Can Be Done: How One Charter School Combats the School-to-Prison Pipeline

The school-to-prison pipeline is a theoretical construct that explains how disproportionate discipline and exclusionary punishment of Black and Brown students ultimately pushes youth out of mainstream schools and into the criminal justice system (Basford and Lewis in From education to incarceration: dismantling the school to prison pipeline, Peter Lang Publishing, New York, 2018; Heitzeg in Forum Public Pol Online, 2009; Lewis and Basford in Six lenses for anti-oppressive education (counterpoints: studies in the postmodern theory of education), Peter Lang Publishing, New York, 2014; Morris and Perry in Soc Probl 63(1):68–86, 2016). While the research has documented the existence of the school-to-prison pipeline and its impact on families, less has been done to study schools that have worked to successfully interrupt the pipeline. The authors respond to this void in the literature by using Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (Motivation and personality, Harper, New York, 1987) and Noddings’ ethic of care (Caring: a feminine approach to ethics and moral education, University of California Press, Berkely, 2003) to interpret the successful efforts of one charter high school focused on dropout recovery, specifically targeting youth who have experienced or are at risk for the school-to-prison pipeline. Findings from this case study suggest that the school embodies what we call institutional plasticity through innovative programming, carefully selected and trained staff, a family-like atmosphere, wrap-around services, and flexible planning for intermittent attendance. Implications identify elements of institutional plasticity for consideration in other settings.

Failure to Focus on the Discipline of Black Girls: Encouraging School Leaders to Initiate Conversations

Although increasing attention has been given to the disproportionate discipline of Black students in general, the specific needs of Black girls have often been overlooked. This article encourages school leaders to analyze how discipline policies are often problematic for Black girls. The article provides a case narrative to illustrate the issue and describes current discipline policy trends. The article recommends school leaders attend not only to implicit biases, but also to their legal requirements to protect Black girls from uneven, culturally biased practices. The article concludes with “Teaching Notes” instructing leaders how to hold courageous conversations to support Black girls.

History Matters: Challenging an A-Historical Approach to Restorative Justice in Teacher Education

Restorative justice (RJ) emphasizes repairing harm through cooperative processes, rather than top-down, punitive responses. Initially used within the justice system to reduce incarceration, RJ gained momentum in public schools as evidence mounted of racially disproportionate school discipline, and in 2016, was incorporated in the California State Teachers Performance Expectations (TPEs). Despite its growth, many teachers, administrators, and teacher educators have had little exposure to RJ. In this article, we review the history of RJ and articulate its transition into education, examine its institutionalization within California TPEs, and expose contradictions that emerge from a de-contextualized approach. Next, we share findings from qualitative questionnaires to expose how these contradictions are mirrored in teacher candidates’ understanding of restorative justice, revealing the need for historical framing and training resources as RJ is built into teacher education.

Blocking the Bathroom: Latino Students and the Spatial Arrangements of Student Discipline

In this ethnographic study of student discipline in California, I examine the spatial arrangements of the disproportionate discipline, surveillance, and banishment of Latino boys who were constructed as gang members from school and community spaces. Drawing on socio-cultural geographical theories, I argue that negative discourses, and implicit bias, together with increased surveillance in school and public space(s) contributed to the disproportionate discipline of Latino male students.

Disturbing Disparities: Black Girls and the School-to-Prison Pipeline

Recent scholarship on the school-to-prison pipeline has zeroed in on the disturbing trajectory of black girls. School officials impose harsh punishments on black girls, including suspension and expulsion from school, at alarming rates. The most recent data from the U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights reveals that one of the harshest forms of discipline — out of school suspension — is imposed on black girls at seven times the rate of their white peers. In the juvenile justice system, black girls are the fastest growing demographic when it comes to arrest and incarceration. Explanations for the disproportionate disciplinary, arrest, and incarceration rates for black girls range from implicit bias by school and law enforcement officials to structural risk factors, like poverty. Scholars point to disproportionate discipline, arrest, and incarceration rates as evidence of a system that fails black girls by pushing them out of school and into the juvenile justice system, thereby ultimately placing them at risk for a range of adverse life experiences.

Avoiding school suspension: Assessment of a trauma-informed intervention with court-involved, female students

ABSTRACTCourt-involved, female students often experience trauma and disproportionate school discipline, complicating their academic success. This mixed-method study examines students' use of and experiences with the Monarch Room (MR), a trauma-informed disciplinary alternative. The study examines service utilization, using a repeated measures analysis of variance to explore whether students (N = 71) demonstrated statistically significant changes in time spent in the MR during the year. The study also qualitatively explores the lived experiences of students (N = 23) and perceived impact of the MR. There was a statistically significant increase in student MR use over the observation period (alpha = 0.05, F(2, 140) = 11.44, p < 0.01, eta-squared = 0.035). Students also report positive perceptions of the MR intervention. Implications for school practice are addressed.

Do School Discipline Policies Treat Students Fairly? A Second Look At School Discipline Rate Disparities

According to a 2014 report from the US Department of Education’s Office for Civil Rights, Black students represent only 15% of students across the nation, but 35% of students suspended once are Black, 44% of students suspended more than once are Black, and 36% of expelled students are Black. While these disparate disciplinary outcomes at the aggregate level are troubling, more information is needed if we are to develop a full understanding of the problem of disproportionate discipline. In particular, consequences should be attached to specific infractions and school level data are necessary to help us decipher the extent to which students in the same schools are being treated differently for the same ostensible infractions. In this study, we exploit three years of student-level discipline data from Arkansas and find that Black students received more severe punishments than White students for the same infractions across the state. These differences were due, in large part, to school-level differences in disciplinary patterns. However, even after controlling for infraction and school-fixed effects, Black students received slightly longer punishments than their White peers in the same schools.

Culturally Responsive School-Wide Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports: A Practical Approach to Addressing Disciplinary Disproportionality with African-American Students

Abstract Zero tolerance policies have contributed to suspension and expulsion becoming common methods of addressing problem behaviors in schools. If suspension and expulsion are being used as forms of punishment, they should theoretically result in a reduction of problem behavior after their administration. In reality, exclusionary disciplinary practices have not been associated with reductions in problem behaviors among students. It has also been consistently established that disproportionate discipline practices and outcomes take place in schools. African-American students, in particular, are overrepresented in their respective rates of suspension and expulsion. School-Wide Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports (SWPBIS) provide strategies that facilitate behavioral support for all students, including those with and without disabilities. Discourse on SWPBIS has suggested that implementation strategies are culturally neutral, and subsequently should be appropriate in all schools. However, African-American students continue to be over-disciplined when compared to their White peers, even when SWPBIS is implemented with sufficient fidelity. This information suggests that a culturally responsive adaptation of SWPBIS is needed. This article provides a framework for implementing culturally responsive School-Wide Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports.

Tail, Tusk, and Trunk: An Examination of What Different Metrics Reveal about Racial Disproportionality in School Discipline

There are substantial racial disparities in school discipline but little agreement on how best to measure them. The choice of metric can influence fundamental conclusions about the magnitude of racial disproportionality and which interventions are likely to address it. To inform the choice of metrics, this study used discipline data from a national sample of schools (N = 4,512) to examine the strengths and weaknesses of two common (risk ratio, risk difference) and three relatively novel (standardized effect size, raw differential representation, and discipline rate) approaches to assessing racial disproportionality. The raw number of students-of-color differentially disciplined was the most stable metric and captured the widest range of information. None of the metrics captured all relevant aspects of disproportionate discipline. Researchers and policy makers should be as deliberate as possible about their specific aims in measuring disproportionality and carefully select metrics that provide the information most responsive to their goals.

Students of Color and Public Montessori Schools: A Review of the Literature

Students of color comprise a majority in public Montessori school enrollments around the United States, and practitioners are often asked for evidence of the Montessori Method’s benefits for these students. This article examines the relevant literature related to the experiences of students of color in public Montessori schools. Research finds Montessori education offers both opportunities and limitations for students of color in attending diverse schools, developing executive functions, achieving academically, accessing early childhood education and culturally responsive education, minimizing racially disproportionate discipline, and limiting overidentification for special education. Public Montessori education’s efficacy with students of color may be limited by several factors: the lack of diversity of the teaching staff and culturally responsive teacher education, schools that struggle to maintain racially diverse enrollments, and the challenge of communicating Montessori’s benefits to families with alternative views of education. The review concludes with directions for future research.