Disposable Baby Diapers Research Articles

Knowledge and management practices for disposable baby diapers among child caregivers in informal urban settlements in Uganda

ABSTRACT Proper handling of child faeces is essential in reducing exposure to pathogens in homes and the environment. The exponential rise in usage of disposable baby diapers requires understanding of caregivers' knowledge and management practices of disposable diapers. We interviewed 230 caregivers of under-five children in an informal settlement in Uganda about their knowledge and practices on used disposable baby diaper management and used logistic regression to assess factors associated with proper management of used diapers. Only 36.5% (84) of caregivers had high knowledge of proper used diaper management practices, and this was associated with having a child ≤12 months [Prevalence Ratio, PR = 1.78, 95% CI 1.04-3.01] and having tertiary education [PR = 2.09, 95% CI 1.12-3.92]. Most caregivers (63.5%, 146) indicated that diapers can be mixed with other general waste. Among the 173 who stored diapers before disposal, 83.2% (144) used polythene bags for storage. Overall, only 49.1% (113) caregivers had proper diaper waste management practices, which was inversely associated with having a young child (≤12 months) [PR = 0.68, 95% CI 0.48–0.95]. Findings highlight deficiencies in knowledge and diaper management practices and underscore the need to intensify awareness and education programmes on the best used diaper management practices.

Remediation of Copper Contaminated Soil by Char Derived from Used Disposable Baby Diapers

Remediation of Copper Contaminated Soil by Char Derived from Used Disposable Baby Diapers

THE PROPOSED BAN OF DISPOSABLE BABY DIAPERS IN ZIMBABWE: VIEWS FROM OLD SENGA RESIDENTS, IN THE CITY OF GWERU, ZIMBABWE

The study aimed to establish the views of residents of Old Senga, City of Gweru, on the proposal by the government to ban disposable baby diapers in Zimbabwe. Soiled disposable baby diapers have become an environmental nuisance. The issue of whether diapers should be banned or not has generated a contentious debate in the country. This qualitative study was conducted in Old Senga, a high-density residential suburb of the City of Gweru, Zimbabwe. A questionnaire survey, interviews and observations were employed to gather information. Purposive sampling was used in the selection of participants. The study established that there were mixed feelings concerning the proposed ban on baby diapers. Proponents of the government’s intention felt that most nursing mothers were ignorant regarding how to dispose of soiled diapers. Opponents of the ban felt that nursing mothers should move with the times and use disposable diapers, as the use of cloth diapers was old-fashioned. The study concluded that disposable baby diapers were now a permanent feature, particularly in urban settings. The study, therefore, recommends that producers of diapers should include instructions on environmentally friendly disposal methods for soiled diapers. Mothers should be encouraged to dispose of soiled diapers in an environmentally friendly manner.

Environmental challenges associated with disposal of baby diapers in Hwange town, Zimbabwe

The rapid increase in the use of disposable baby diapers in urban areas is associated with a number of environmental challenges. This study assesses the environmental challenges of disposable baby diapers in Hwange, Zimbabwe. Questionnaires, interviews, and field observations were used for data collection in this study. Data collected from the field was analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 25.0 and Microsoft Excel. The study findings show that pollution, diseases, and odours are the major challenges of poor waste management associated with disposable baby diapers in Hwange ZPC residential areas. The study recommends the involvement of responsible authorities in conscientious recycling and education on waste management. The research also recommends the need to conduct longitudinal research to establish the position of local and central government in the bid to promote a safe and healthy environment in mining towns such as Hwange, as they are overlooked.

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polychlorodibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) determination in disposable baby diapers with the application of natural deep eutectic solvent

In this work a new method involving solvent extraction of porous membrane-packed solid samples (SE-PMSS) coupled to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS) has been developed for the determination of six polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and five polychlorodibenzo-p-dioxines (PCDDs) in disposable baby diapers. In that aim, a terpenoid-based natural deep eutectic solvent (NADES) composed of carvone and camphor in a 1:1 M ratio was used. The extraction process consisted on a first sealing step of the homogenized whole diaper inside a polypropylene bag. The bag was then immersed in a proper amount of NADES and agitated. After that, measurements were carried out injecting the NADES with the extracted analytes directly into the GC–MS system. Previously, a design of experiment was performed employing a Box Behnken design (BBD) to calculate the optimum variables of the extraction process. With the optimum values, the method was validated obtaining good analytical features such as low limits of detection (0.065–0.60 µg/g) and limits of quantification (0.22–2.0 µg/g). Relative recoveries ranging between 84 and 114 % and relative standard deviations under 15 % for all the analytes. Finally, the green character of this method was evaluated employing the tools complementary green analytical procedure index (ComplexGAPI) and analytical greenness metric for sample preparation (AGREEprep).

Exposure scenario and risk assessment of infants and newborns to bisphenols and their derivatives from diapers

Newborns and infants are more sensitive to harmful compounds such as bisphenols and their derivatives because of their not fully developed detoxification mechanism. Exposure to these substances can lead to developmental problems and health consequences in adulthood. Since disposable baby diapers are used from the first days of life and remain in contact with the baby skin, it seems important to monitor the levels of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in such products. Ultrasound assisted solvent microextraction of porous membrane-packed solid sample (UASE-PMSS) was used in sample preparation. Liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was used at determination step. Bisphenol A was quantified with the highest frequency at 81 % of samples tested, ranging from 5.0 to 520 ng/g. BADGE·2HCl was also quantified in high concentrations (from 6.8 to 530 ng/g), but was found in only 15 % of the tested samples. The daily exposure dose (DED) of bisphenols was calculated. In addition health risk assessment was conducted using previous (4 µg/kg BW) and actual (0.2 ng/kg BW) values of tolerable daily intake (TDI) of bisphenol A recommended by European Food Safety Authority (EFSA).

The presence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in disposable baby diapers: A facile determination method via salting-out assisted liquid-liquid extraction coupled with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

In this paper we demonstrate the development of the extraction procedure of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from baby diapers along with their quantification by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Apart from covering plastic foil, disposable baby diapers contain sorbents intended to absorb urine and feces. A hygroscopic, adsorptive, and tough-to-homogenize fibrous sorbent, represents an analytical challenge to analytical chemists. To address this issue we optimized and validated a novel extraction protocol including cryogenic homogenization, liquid-liquid extraction and further preconcentration by evaporation. By using deuterated internal standards in conjunction with matrix-matched calibration, high precision and accuracy were achieved. The limit of detection is estimated in the range of 0.041–0.221 ng/g (for fluorene and fluoranthene, respectively), which is far below the concentration currently assumed to be dangerous for children. The method was successfully applied to real samples available on the Polish market, and it was found that the amount of PAH compounds varies between manufacturers. Most diapers do not have all 15 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in their composition, but there is no diaper that is free of these compounds. The most abundant in diapers was acenaphthalene, where the concentration ranged from 1.6 ng/g diaper up to 362.4 ng/g. The lowest concentration in diapers is chrysene, which is not detected in most diapers. The article is a response to the lack of a harmonized analytical method for the determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in disposable sanitary products for children.

Factors predicting pro-environmental behavior: the case of baby diapers

PurposeIn addition to being one of the most commonly purchased items by infant caretakers, disposable baby diapers (DBDs) are among the most detrimental products to the environment. Shifting to a diapering method that is less harmful to the environment is an example of pro-environmental conduct. Hence, this study aims to examine how motivation, subjective norms, perceived benefits and perceived threats influence pro-environmental behavior (PEB) intention.Design/methodology/approachThis research uses a two-stage disjoint approach of partial least squares structural equation modeling to examine the data. In the conceptual model, a combination of reflective-reflective second-order constructs is used in the motivation, perceived benefits and perceived threats. A total of 233 respondents from a developing economy in Southeast Asia provide the data.FindingsThis study suggests that perceived benefits (i.e. environmental, monetary and symbol) and threats (i.e. susceptibility and severity) are significant determinants of PEB. Surprisingly, motivation and subjective norms had no significant relationship with consumers' adoption of non-DBD alternatives.Research limitations/implicationsTo persuade caretakers to act in an environmentally responsible manner, the findings of this study imply that, where relevant, considerations for a wide variety of benefits and health risks should be made apparent. Environmental, financial and symbolic benefits should be shared with prospective target audiences. Caretakers should be warned of probable health effects of not being environmentally friendly. This study argues that caretakers' lack of information of non-DBD options may explain the insignificance of subjective norms and motivation.Originality/valueThis study contributes to the social marketing literature by examining the influence of motivation, subjective norms, perceived benefits and perceived threats on the intention to use more-environmentally friendly alternatives to DBDs as a manifestation of PEB.

Multicriteria Decision Analysis and Grouping of Analytical Procedures for Phthalates Determination in Disposable Baby Diapers

This study presents the application of one of the tools from the multicriteria decision analysis set (MCDA), the Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS). Selected green analytical chemistry metrics were used to rank analytical procedures for the phthalate determination in disposable baby diapers. Nine analytical procedures were assessed in order to find one that has the lowest environmental impact and the best analytical figures of merit. Nine different criteria, where weighting was based on the experts’ evaluation, were used in the procedures’ assessment. With the use of TOPSIS, an easy and straightforward technique, selection of the most appropriate procedure was made.

Hygienic Assessment of Disposable Baby Diapers Made with Innovative Materials

Background: It is of current importance to develop an algorithm for assessing chemical and physical safety of products for children and adolescents made with such innovative materials as organic cotton, bamboo, fibers and threads containing silver ions used for children’s underwear, materials impregnated with marigold extract for insoles of children’s footwear, and diapers from plant raw materials. The institute conducts testing and scientific substantiation of children’s goods made using innovative technologies. Objective: To assess safety of diapers made with innovative materials (ECO-diapers). Materials and methods: We conducted physicochemical, toxicological and organoleptic testing of 200 samples of medium size disposable baby ECO-diapers made with innovative materials. Results: The results of chemical and toxicological tests of ECO-diapers in a model aqueous environment showed that the formaldehyde concentration in aqueous extracts of the diaper samples ranged from 0.08 ± 0.020 to 0.1 mg/dm3; toxicity index values – from 74.1 to 89.1 %; pH – from 0.35 to 0.5 units, and the total phenolic content – from < 0.005 to 0.024 ± 0.002 mg/dm3, thus being within permissible limits. Measured concentrations of acetaldehyde, acrylonitrile, acetone, benzene, hexane, methyl and propyl alcohols, toluene, ethyl acetate, lead, arsenic, zinc, chromium were also below threshold values. Chemical testing of the samples of baby diapers in a model air environment with exposure duration of 4, 12, and 24 hours detected migration of chemicals already after four hours of exposure, which did not change following 12 and 24 hours. The value of water absorption capacity, which is one of the main indicators of functional benefit of diapers, ranged from 307.6 ± 30.8 g to 355.5 ± 35.5 g and significantly exceeded the established standard (not less than 240.0 g for medium size diapers) owing to the use of innovative materials in the production of ECO-diapers. Conclusions: Our findings demonstrate the necessity to develop special methodological approaches to measuring breathability of ECO- and traditional diapers, to regulate smell by including this organoleptic quality criterion in the list of safety requirements, and to limit exposure duration in a model air environment to four hours.

A new approach for assessing the absorption of disposable baby diapers and superabsorbent polymers: A comparative study

Superabsorbent polymers (SAPs) are materials that can absorb and retain large amounts of water and aqueous solutions. This has made them ideal for a variety of valuable applications in medicine, agriculture, and industry in general. Nevertheless, their use as a material for absorbing liquids in disposable baby diapers (DBD) remains the most useable. DBDs on the market today are made up of three main layers in addition to SAP. The topsheet, the closest to the skin, is designed to isolate the baby’s skin from the wet inner core. The absorbent core (AC) which is a mixture of the SAP in a cellulose core called fluff pulp. The backsheet is a waterproof outer material made of polyethylene or polypropylene. Besides other materials that help contain urine and waste. However, the composition, quantity, and SAP distribution differ with the diaper brand, so a diaper absorption assessment is recommended to judge its quality. For that reason, nine representative samples of commercial brands of the best-selling baby diapers in the U.S, Europe, Africa, and the Middle East were taken to assess their liquid absorption. According to our knowledge, no publication in the literature has carried out a general study assembling industrial evaluation methods to classify and distinguish between the commercial brands of baby diapers.In this study, the evaluation of DBD samples was carried out by analyzing their dimensional measurements and quantifying their interior components. The total absorptive capacity and fluid run-off quantification were investigated. While the SAP liquid absorption was also carried out through FTIR, FSC, CRC, AUL, AR, PSD, pH, and MC. Finally, by the comparative study, the most suitable diaper total absorptive capacity was 1698 ​wt% in saline solution as the density 0.21 ​g/cm3 and the SAP content 23.2 ​wt%. Furthermore, the SAP performances in saline solution were for FSC 47 ​g/g, CRC 35.26 ​g/g, and AUL 0.3psi 27.4 ​g/g.

Sterilisation technology for disposable diapers waste using double jacket and centrifugal speed principles

Globally, disposable baby diapers demand continues to grow alongside with an increase in the birth rate and child (aged 0-3) population. On average, diapers consumption is around 6-8 pieces per baby, giving approximately 6,300 diapers for the next 2.5 years. Furthermore, each diaper contains 35% of organic and 65% of inorganic materials. The presences of inorganic materials pose a detrimental effect on environment as it needs around 500-800 year to breakdown or degrade. This study was aimed to enhance the valorisation of disposable baby diapers waste by implementing sterilisation technology. The technology was based on a double jacket and centrifugal speed principles, enabling to effectively and safely sterilise the diapers waste. The comparison with the conventional technology was carried out based on the following parameters: total number of E. coli, Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), turbidity, pH, temperature, and operational cost analysis. The results indicated that the proposed sterilisation technology has superior performance than conventional sterilisation technology. The findings also confirmed that the sterilised diapers waste can be further reused for making other valuable products, such as eco-friendly handy craft or souvenirs. Economically, the implementation of the proposed technology can support the creation of green creative industries, particularly in Indonesia.

Decomposition Process of Disposable Baby Diapers in Organic Waste with Takakura Method

Decomposition Process of Disposable Baby Diapers in Organic Waste with Takakura Method

Disposable baby diapers waste derived catalyst for synthesizing glycerol carbonate by the transesterification of glycerol with dimethyl carbonate

In this work, the superabsorbent polymer (SAP) in the disposable baby diapers waste (DBDW) was carbonized at different temperatures to prepare a series of base catalysts. The carbonization behavior of the SAP was examined by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The structure and morphology of the as-prepared catalysts were investigated by field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Brunauer-Emmet-Teller surface area measurement (BET), and acid-base titration technique. The catalytic ability of these catalysts in the transesterification reaction of glycerol with dimethyl carbonate (DMC) was compared. Among them, the catalyst prepared by the carbonization of the SAP collected from the DBDW at 500 °C in nitrogen was the most suitable one for the synthesis of glycerol carbonate (GC) by the transesterification of glycerol with DMC. This catalyst showed good catalytic activity with the glycerol conversion of 95.6% and GC yield of 93.6%. Moreover, it exhibited high reusability after eight-time reuse in the reaction.

Disposable baby diapers: Life cycle costs, eco-efficiency and circular economy

The literature on baby diapers has so far focused on environmental implications of using cloth instead of disposable products, utilising bio-materials or enabling recycling and composting. However, no study to date has examined the life cycle costs and eco-efficiency implications of cleaner production of disposable diapers. Therefore, this paper sets out to evaluate the economic and environmental savings that could be achieved by eco-design and cleaner production of disposable baby diapers. This involves the use of an optimised absorbent core and innovative bonding technologies to replace gluing systems in diaper manufacturing. The analysis is carried out at different production and consumption scales: a single production platform, a whole industrial plant, a country and the European Union (EU). A cradle-to-grave life cycle costing demonstrates that the novel design and manufacture of the so-called “glueless” diapers reduce costs by 11% compared to the conventional product. This is equivalent to saving €250 million at the EU level. Likewise, the eco-efficiency analysis shows that the glueless diapers are 7%–170% more eco-efficient (€/impact) than the standard diapers, depending on the environmental impact considered. Still, eco-design and cleaner production will not help to resolve the underlying critical issue of the linear material consumption and waste generation associated with the use of disposable baby diapers. Further industrial efforts must concentrate on finding solutions to facilitate implementation of circular economy principles for these products. This calls for the development of new circular business models as discussed in the paper.

Improving resource efficiency and environmental impacts through novel design and manufacturing of disposable baby diapers

The annual market demand for disposable baby diapers exceeds 20 billion units (690 kt) in the European Union (EU). Almost 40,000 disposable diapers are used every minute, producing 1.3 t/min (dry weight) of waste. Based on the estimates in this work, this requires 90.3 PJ of primary energy and emits 2.7 Mt CO2 eq. annually. In an attempt to reduce resource, waste and environmental impacts associated with diapers, this paper focuses on novel design and manufacture of disposable baby diapers. This involves using optimised absorbent core and novel bonding technologies to replace conventional gluing of diaper materials. Life cycle assessment has been performed to compare the environmental performance of these new diapers, here termed “glueless”, with standard designs. The annual resource consumption and environmental impacts of glueless diapers have been estimated at different production levels: a single production platform, an industrial plant, a country (Italy) and the EU, taking into account different production volumes, electricity mixes and waste management options. Different market penetration scenarios have been considered to determine potential environmental implications at the EU level by 2020. The results reveal that glueless diapers reduce the consumption of raw materials by 23% (9.2 g/diaper), primary energy demand by 25% (752 kJ/diaper) and global warming potential by 10% (10.4 g CO2 eq./diaper) compared to the standard diapers. They also have more than 50% lower eutrophication, ozone depletion and human and eco-toxicity. Up to 16 PJ primary energy and 191,000 t CO2 eq. would be saved annually in the EU by using glueless diapers. The cumulative savings would amount to 47 PJ and 566,000 t CO2 eq. by 2020. The annual consumption of raw materials at the EU level would be reduced by 196,000 t with cumulative savings of up to 584,000 t by 2020, also reducing the equivalent amount of waste from the disposal of diapers. Consequently, glueless diapers can contribute to meeting the energy, climate and resource efficiency goals specified in the EU 2020 strategy.

Occurrence of tin in disposable baby diapers

Concentrations of tin were measured in six different brands of disposable baby diapers by using radioisotope (americium) excited energy dispersive X‐ray fluorescence. Top sheet and adhesive tape system were measured separately. The concentrations found in top sheet and tape system were <1.5 to 23.1 mg/kg and <1.5 to 22.4 mg/kg, respectively. Almost all diapers contained tin in the adhesive tape system (four of five), and two of six samples contained tin in top sheet. Tin found in diapers may be an organotin substance: tributyltin (TBT), dibutyltin (DBT), monobutyltin (MBT) and/or dioctyltin (DOT), which are widely used in industrial processes as catalysts or as PVC heat stabilizers. Organotin substances have toxic effects which include neurotoxicity, reproductive and developmental toxicity, immunotoxicity and endocrine disruption. The measured concentrations were less than EU regulatory levels of 0.1% by weight of tin prescribed by REACH Annex XVII No 20. However, the same regulation completely bans the use of organotin substances as biocides in antifouling paints. While effects of TBT on marine organisms from antifouling paints are well known, the effects of organotin compounds in childcare products and other commercial articles receive much less attention. Children who use disposable diapers every day are particularly sensitive. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Evolution of disposable baby diapers in Europe: life cycle assessment of environmental impacts and identification of key areas of improvement

An assessment of the environmental aspects related to the life cycle of disposable baby diapers in Europe is presented in this paper with the aim of analysing recent improvements and identifying key environmental areas on which to focus in order to further decrease impacts.Average products available on the European market in recent years have been modelled and evaluated from “cradle to grave”. Results point out the importance of materials in the definition of the environmental profile of the product. These are followed by the end of life for some impact categories, while the contribution of manufacturing, packaging and transport to the overall LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) results seems of minor relevance.Significant environmental improvements at European level have been achieved in recent years through the design of lighter products and the introduction of superabsorbent polymers. Careful selection and use of materials at the design stage could allow life cycle impacts of products to be further decreased, while ensuring that human health and environmental risks are controlled and that functionality and performance requirements are fulfilled. Indeed, potential malfunctioning of products would result in increasing consumption. Resource efficiency is also important at the manufacturing level to optimise the demand for materials and limit waste production. Special forms of treatment at the end of life stage of the product could instead require significant structural changes of the waste management system.The outcomes of this paper could be applied to support the design and environmental labelling of disposable baby diapers for promoting the production and consumption of product options characterised by lower environmental impacts.

Morocco's Novatis Group: diaper manufacturing in a developing country

Subject area This case tackles the diaper industry in a developing country and can be applied to three different undergraduate or graduate level courses, including Marketing Management, Strategic Management, and Operations and Supply Chain Management. The case describes the industry, the manufacturing process, along with detailed information about Novatis Group's business and functions and the overall improving economic environment in Morocco. Study level/applicability The Novatis Group case has several objectives that can be applied to three different courses within undergraduate and graduate studies including Marketing Management, Strategic Management, and Operations and Supply Chain Management. Case overview The case focuses on Novatis Group, a diaper manufacturing company located in Morocco which competes against multinational companies (MNCs) such as Procter and Gamble and Kimberly Clark in order to satisfy the rising diaper needs of the country. Morocco is a developing country that is strengthening its manufacturing industries. The rising economic conditions have given way to a growing middle class and an increased demand for disposable baby diapers. Novatis uses two distribution channels for the diapers: the multi-tiered distribution channel and the streamlined (straight to retailer) channel. Novatis Group is producing diapers at full capacity; still demand has exceeded supply. Expected learning outcomes Students will understand the business processes in a developing country and how a small, local company can compete against large MNCs. Supplementary materials Teaching notes are available, please consult your Librarian to access.

LCA-measured environmental improvements in Pampers® diapers

The aim of this study was to investigate the factors that influence the sustainability of disposable baby diapers (nappies) using life cycle assessments (LCAs). Size 4 Pampers® Cruisers (North American name) and ActiveFit (European name) from 2007 are compared to new versions made in 2010 to determine if the design and materials changes intended to improve performance also lead to reductions in the most relevant environmental indicators. Cradle-to-grave LCAs, consistent with ISO 14040/14044 Standards, are conducted. The functional unit is “the number of diapers needed to collect excreta over a child’s diapering lifetime.” Input data come from P&G, suppliers, trade association reports, Franklin and ecoinvent databases, and Google. SimaPro 7 is used to model the LCA. Several life cycle impact assessments (LCIA) methods, sensitivity analyses, normalization to annual consumption, and Monte Carlo analysis are used to produce and check results. The consumption normalization identified that the diaper’s “environmental footprint” should include the IMPACT2002+ indicators: nonrenewable energy, global warming potential (GWP), respiratory effects from inorganics, total solid waste, and cumulative energy demand (CED). Other indicators are insignificant. Contribution analysis shows that the sourcing and production of diaper materials contribute most to the environmental indicators evaluated, accounting for ∼84% of all non-renewable energy uses and ∼64% of global warming potential. Diaper disposal is a small contributor (1–12%) to potential environmental impacts. Reductions observed for the 2010 US product are: CED—8%, solid waste—12%, non-renewable energy—1%, GWP500—4%, and respiratory inorganics—6%. For the European product, reductions are: CED—11%, solid waste—8%, non-renewable energy—3%, GWP500—5%, and respiratory inorganics—14%. The new Pampers® diapers sold in the USA and Europe have a reduced environmental footprint versus the previous versions (2007). Significant reductions are achieved in non-renewable energy use and global warming potential, as well as other environmental indicators by optimizing the diaper design and the materials. Although some of the results are single digit reductions, Monte Carlo analysis indicates that there is a high probability that the differences are real. The use of multiple LCIA methods to compare products is helpful to confirm consistency of results. Normalizing the LCIA scores to annual consumption also helps prioritize which environmental indicators can be impactful and affected by changing a product.