Dispersed Region Research Articles

Effect of high sodium ion level on the interaction of AmB with a cholesterol-rich phospholipid monolayer.

Invasive fungal infections are a primary reason for high mortality in immunocompromised people, especially in critically ill patients, such as intensive care unit (ICU) patients, advanced cancer patients, or severe burn patients. Hypernatremia also can increase mortality in severely ill patients. Amphotericin B (AmB) is the gold standard for treating infections, but in severely ill patients, AmB can cause hematotoxicity when administered intravenously due to its interaction with cholesterol on red blood cell membranes. This results in limited doses of AmB and affects the treatment of infections. The proportion of cholesterol molecules in membrane lipids in red blood cells is as high as 50mol%, and the sodium ions can influence the interaction between AmB and lipids on the membrane. Therefore, in the complex clinical situation of a severely ill patient with a fungal infection and hypernatremia, the interaction between amphotericin B and the red blood cell membranes is worth studying in depth. In this work, the interaction between AmB and the dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine (DPPC)/cholesterol mixed monolayer in the presence of high sodium ion levels was studied when the proportion of cholesterol was 50%. The results show that the effect of AmB on reducing the monolayer's area at a high level of sodium ions is slightly stronger at 30mN/m. The effect of AmB on reducing the elastic modulus of the DPPC/Chol monolayer is significantly weakened by a high sodium ion level, compared with the level of sodium ions at normal physiological concentration. The higher the sodium ion concentration, the weaker the intermolecular force of the DPPC/Chol/AmB mixed monolayers. The scanning electron microscope (SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) observations suggest that at a high sodium ion level, the presence of AmB significantly reduces the surface roughness of the DPPC/Chol monolayer. AmB may bind to cholesterol molecules, and it isolates cholesterol from the monolayer, resulting in a reduced height of the cholesterol-rich monolayer and an increasingly dispersed monolayer region. The results are beneficial to understanding the mechanism of impact of a high sodium ion level on the relationship between AmB and red blood cell membranes rich in cholesterol and are valuable for understanding the hemolytic toxicity of AmB to red blood cells at a high sodium ion level.

Comparison of Mitochondrial Genome Arrangement of Labeorohita with Some Selected Vertebrae Species.

The mitochondrial genome of Labeorohita serves as a microcosm for exploring genetic diversity and evolutionary relationships within vertebrates. Through comprehensive analysis of the mitochondrial genome, encompassing 37 genes including protein-coding genes (PCGs), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA), we elucidated its organization and compared it with other vertebrate taxa. Our investigation revealed a compact mitochondrial genome of approximately 16 kb, comprising 13 PCGs, 22 tRNA genes, and 2 rRNA genes, with a distinctive dispersed loop region (D-loop). Notably, the arrangement of PCGs formed three distinct clusters, shared across Labeo species, suggesting evolutionary conservation within the genus. Comparative analyses with other osteichthyes species corroborated this conservation, underscoring L. rohita‘s representative status within the class. Furthermore, comparisons with chondrichthyes, lungfish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals unveiled evolutionary trends in mitochondrial genome organization. Noteworthy findings include the unique replication origin in lungfish and amphibians, and transposition events in birds. Phylogenetic reconstructions based on mitochondrial gene sequences affirmed the close relationship between lungfish and amphibians, supporting lungfish as the closest relatives of class Amphibia. In summary, our study provides comprehensive insights into the mitochondrial genome organization of L. rohita and its implications for vertebrate evolution. The findings contribute to a deeper understanding of genetic diversity and evolutionary relationships within vertebrates, with potential applications in taxonomy, conservation, and evolutionary biology.

Exploring more concentrated and consistent activation regions for cross-domain semantic segmentation

The cross-domain semantic segmentation in urban scenes is challenging due to the gap between the source and the target domains. Although the existing methods achieve remarkable performance, these methods have some limitations. First, the region activated by the backbone network is dispersed. The dispersed feature activation region is difficult to help the feature distribution alignment between the two domains. Second, these methods ignore the inconsistent problem between the activation regions of the two domains. Intuitively, the consistent feature activation region between the two domains is beneficial to align the feature distribution. In this paper, we present a novel approach for cross-domain semantic segmentation. Specifically, we propose a kernel-based channel attention (KCA) module and a mutual information domain adaptation (MIDA) module. The KCA module models the relationship between channels by using explicit non-linear kernel mappings for generating KCA features that aim to obtain more concentrated activation regions of the category. The MIDA module is a strategy of the KCA feature distribution alignment between the two domains. Specifically, the MIDA module contains a mutual information loss function and two adversarial learning loss functions. The three loss functions work together to obtain more consistent activation regions of the KCA feature between the two domains. Finally, the aligned KCA feature is fused with the feature of backbone to guide the semantic segmentation. Furthermore, self-supervised learning and image translation methods are leveraged to learn a better cross-domain semantic segmentation model. Extensive experiments demonstrate that the proposed approach achieves competitive performance against the state-of-the-art methods on challenging synthetic-to-real tasks.

Development and implementation of a scalable and versatile test for COVID-19 diagnostics in rural communities

Rapid and widespread testing of severe acute respiratory coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is essential for an effective public health response aimed at containing and mitigating the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Successful health policy implementation relies on early identification of infected individuals and extensive contact tracing. However, rural communities, where resources for testing are sparse or simply absent, face distinctive challenges to achieving this success. Accordingly, we report the development of an academic, public land grant University laboratory-based detection assay for the identification of SARS-CoV-2 in samples from various clinical specimens that can be readily deployed in areas where access to testing is limited. The test, which is a quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR)-based procedure, was validated on samples provided by the state laboratory and submitted for FDA Emergency Use Authorization. Our test exhibits comparable sensitivity and exceeds specificity and inclusivity values compared to other molecular assays. Additionally, this test can be re-configured to meet supply chain shortages, modified for scale up demands, and is amenable to several clinical specimens. Test development also involved 3D engineering critical supplies and formulating a stable collection media that allowed samples to be transported for hours over a dispersed rural region without the need for a cold-chain. These two elements that were critical when shortages impacted testing and when personnel needed to reach areas that were geographically isolated from the testing center. Overall, using a robust, easy-to-adapt methodology, we show that an academic laboratory can supplement COVID-19 testing needs and help local health departments assess and manage outbreaks. This additional testing capacity is particularly germane for smaller cities and rural regions that would otherwise be unable to meet the testing demand.

Micromixing Efficiency in the Presence of an Inert Gas in a Rotor–Stator Spinning Disk Reactor

The effects on micromixing of co-feeding an inert gas with the bulk liquid are studied for a rotor–stator spinning disk reactor by means of the Villermaux–Dushman test reaction. The results of varying rotational speeds and gas–liquid ratios are reported for three configurations: injecting the acid into the dispersed region, into the bottom thin-film region, and into the upper thin-film region. The results show that injecting in the dispersed region is the optimal configuration, as the liquid experiences the shear stress between the rotor and the stator, and with increasing rotational speed, micromixing efficiency subsequently increases. Injecting in the thin-film regions leads to poor micromixing efficiency, since the gas layer reduces the turbulence levels experienced by the liquid. For the bottom thin film, increasing rotational speed improves micromixing efficiency due to inertial rotation of the liquid film. However, in the upper thin film, micromixing is significantly worse, being affected by the dripping of liquid on the stator at the injection point. Gas holdup measurements are compared to previous studies, showing that most of the gas volume is present in the thin-film regions. These results are relevant for the design of modular chemical processes using the spinning disk technology, when fast competitive chemical reactions occur in the presence of gas and liquid.

Longitudinal drift behaviors and spatial transport efficiency for spraying pesticide droplets

Pesticide spraying for crop protection is to obtain adequate coverage on the target surfaces with a minimum of off-target waste. Understanding the spatial behaviors of spray droplets is critical to regulate pesticide deposition. Here, we investigated the droplet interaction behaviors in the dense region and the transport efficiency of pesticide droplets in the dispersed region. The trajectories were tracked with the discrete phase method verified by the wind tunnel experiment. In the dense region near the nozzle, coalescence between droplets smaller than 150 μm and the larger ones can obviously improve the initial droplet size distribution. The reduction in the proportion of easily drifted droplets, contributed by droplet coalescence, can significantly increase droplet deposition onto the target region. When droplets are gradually dispersing, the critical drift height is proposed and clarified by recognizing the falling distance where the mass transport efficiency begins to reduce rapidly. Once the actual spray height exceeds the critical drift height, narrowing the initial relative span of droplets will not facilitate the pesticide transport efficiency, even aggravating the drift loss. The evaporation losses of droplets smaller than 150 μm are more sensitive to the air temperature and relative humidity. The findings of droplet drift behaviors offer insights into pesticide spraying and also provide a strategy for drift regulation.

Proactive management of SLA violations by capturing relevant external events in a Cloud of Things environment

The cloud of things (CoT) is an emerging paradigm that has merged and combined cloud computing and the Internet of Things (IoT). Such a paradigm has enabled service providers to provide on-demand computing resources from devices spread across different locations for service users to be dynamically connected to them. While this benefits the CoT service providers and users in many ways, it also brings a key challenge of ensuring that the service is delivered according to the promised quality. Failure to ensure this will result in the service provider experiencing penalties of different types and the service user experiencing disruptions. The literature addresses this problem by proactively managing for SLA violations. However, given the geographically dispersed region of a formed CoT service, in this paper we argue that for proactive SLA violation identification, we need specialized techniques that also consider events that are outside the usual control of service providers and users, but will impact the CoT environment and the quality of service. We propose a framework that identifies such external events of interest and ascertains their impact on achieving the service according to the promised quality. We explain the working of our proposed framework in detail and demonstrate its superiority in proactively determining SLA violations as compared to existing approaches.

An experimental investigation of heterogeneous injection of biopolymer (guar gum) on the flow patterns and drag reduction percentage for two phase (water-oil mixture) flow

An experimental investigation of the effect of a water-soluble biopolymer (guar gum) in horizontal water-oil flow was studied. A horizontal pipe flow facility having inner diameter 19.5 mm and length 3050 mm was used. Laboratory scale experiments were conducted using the biopolymer, which showed a positive effect on drag reduction. A master solution having 1000 ppm concentration was injected in the boundary layer by using peristaltic pump to achieve 10–50 ppm concentration. Simultaneously, effect of the drag reducing polymer on the flow patterns were investigated from stratified region to dispersed flow region. It was found that addition of the polymer in the boundary layer extended the stratified region to higher mixture velocities from lower mixture velocities. Similar experiments were performed by varying oil fraction as well as polymer concentration in the test facility. A maximum drag reduction of 50% was observed when 50 ppm polymer was injected to 0.1 oil fraction solution.

A Continuum of Accretion Burst Behavior in Young Stars Observed by K2

Abstract We present 29 likely members of the young ρ Oph or Upper Sco regions of recent star formation that exhibit “accretion burst” type light curves in K2 time series photometry. The bursters were identified by visual examination of their ∼80-day light curves, though all satisfy the flux asymmetry criterion for burst behavior defined by Cody et al. The burst sources represent ≈9% of cluster members with strong infrared excess indicative of circumstellar material. Higher amplitude burster behavior is correlated with larger inner disk infrared excesses, as inferred from WISE color. The burst sources are also outliers in their large Hα emission equivalent widths. No distinction between bursters and non-bursters is seen in stellar properties such as multiplicity or spectral type. The frequency of bursters is similar between the younger, more compact ρ Oph region, and the older, more dispersed Upper Sco region. The bursts exhibit a range of shapes, amplitudes (∼10%–700%), durations (∼1–10 days), repeat timescales (∼3–80 days), and duty cycles (∼10%–100%). Our results provide important input to models of magnetospheric accretion, in particular, by elucidating the properties of accretion-related variability in the low state between major longer duration events such as EX Lup and FU Ori type accretion outbursts. We demonstrate the broad continuum of accretion burst behavior in young stars—extending the phenomenon to lower amplitudes and shorter timescales than traditionally considered in the theory of pre-main sequence accretion history.

An enthalpy method based on fixed-grid for quasi-steady modeling of solidification/melting processes of pure materials

We propose a quasi-steady enthalpy method based on fixed-grid to consider the latent heat of phase change during a solidification/melting process of a pure material. The latent heat of phase change released or absorbed at the solid-liquid interface disperses into a region at the interface in the proposed method. It is validated through comparing to the solutions obtained with the adaptive mesh method which is commonly accepted for its accuracy in modeling solidification/melting processes for pure materials. The effects of the dispersed region size and the phase change rate on the simulation accuracy of the proposed method are investigated. Based on the proposed method, a general form of the distribution function of the latent heat of phase change is proposed. The distribution of the latent heat of phase change in the dispersed region is controlled by selecting different forms of distribution function to improve the simulation accuracy. The selecting principle of the distribution function is proposed on the basis of concentrating the latent heat of phase change at the solid-liquid interface. By following the selecting principle, the accuracy can be controlled and the size of the dispersed region does not need to be determined in advance. Two distribution functions of the latent heat of phase change are investigated. Results show that the proper concentration of the latent heat of phase change at the solid-liquid interface is favorable for the simulation accuracy.

Homooligomeric β3 (R)-valine peptides: Transformation between C14 and C12 helical structures induced by a guest Aib residue.

Novel helical, structures unprecedented in the chemistry of α-polypeptides, may be found in polypeptides containing β and γ amino acids. The structural characterization of C12 and C14 -helices in oligo β-peptides was originally achieved using conformationally constrained cyclic β-residues. This study explores the conformational characteristics of proteinogenic β3 residues in homooligomeric sequences and addresses the issue of inducing a transition between C14 and C12 helices by the introduction of a guest α-residue. Folded C14 -helical structures are demonstrated for the nonapeptide Boc-[β3 (R)Val]9 -OMe by NMR methods in CDCl3 -DMSO mixtures, while the peptide was found to be aggregated in CDCl3 . The insertion of a guest Aib residue into an oligo-β-valine sequence in the octapeptide model Boc-[(β3 (R)Val)3 -Aib-(β3 (R)Val]4 -OMe results in well dispersed NH region in the NMR spectrum indicating folded structures in CDCl3 . Structure calculations for both the peptides using NOE distance constraints support a C14 helical structure in the homooligomer which transform into a C12 helix on introduction of the guest Aib residue.

Numerical investigation of turbulent-jet primary breakup using one-dimensional turbulence

Primary breakup to form droplets at liquid surfaces is an important fundamental process to study as it determines the initial properties of the dispersed phase, which affect mixing rates, secondary breakup, droplet collisions, and flow separation within the dispersed flow region. Primary breakup can be regarded as one of the least developed model components for simulating and predicting liquid jet breakup. However, it is of paramount importance in many technical applications, e.g. fuel injection in engines and spray painting. This paper presents a numerical investigation of primary breakup of a turbulent liquid jet in still air at standard conditions using the one-dimensional turbulence (ODT) modeling framework. ODT is a stochastic model that simulates turbulent flow evolution along a notional 1D line of sight by applying instantaneous maps to represent the effect of individual turbulent eddies on property profiles. An important feature of ODT is the resolution of all relevant scales, both temporal and spatial. The restriction to one spatial dimension in ODT permits affordable high resolution of interfacial and single-phase property gradients, which is key to capturing the local behavior of the breakup process and allows simulations at high Reynolds and Weber numbers that are currently not accessible to direct numerical simulations (DNS).This paper summarizes our extensions of the ODT model to simulate geometrically simple jet breakup problems, including representations of Rayleigh wave breakup, turbulent breakup, and shear-driven breakup. Each jet breakup simulation consists of a short temporal channel section to initialize a turbulent velocity profile at the nozzle exit followed by an adjacent jet section. The simulations are carried out for jet exit Reynolds number of 11,500, 23,000, 46,000 and 92,000 while the Weber number is varied within the range 102–107. We present results on breakup statistics including spatial locations of droplet release, droplet sizes and liquid core length. The results on primary breakup are compared to experimental results and models.

Hydrodynamic modeling of an industrial turbulent fluidized bed reactor with FCC particles

This study presents a CFD modeling of the hydrodynamics in an industrial turbulent fluidized bed reactor with FCC particles. Considering the mesoscale structure of particle clusters and the impact of reactor temperatures, a gas-solid drag model based on the equivalent diameter of particle clusters is proposed. A CFD model is developed, the model parameters are evaluated, and the gas-solid flow behaviors are explored. Compared with the conventional drag models, the proposed model gives a reasonable hydrodynamic prediction in the industrial turbulent fluidized bed reactor. The hydrodynamics show more sensitive to the drag models than to the flow types, the kinetics theories and the restitution coefficients. There exist two coexisting flow regions in the industrial turbulent fluidized bed: a bottom dense, bubbling region and an upper dilute, dispersed flow region. Moreover, the bed density in the dense phase is much lower than those in the cold experiments. In the dilute phase, particles ascend in the center and descend near the wall, showing a core-annulus flow. In the bottom dense phase, some vortex flows appear, leading to the non-uniform distribution of particle velocity and solid holdup. With increasing the superficial gas velocity, the bed surface rises; and the bed density decreases in the bottom dense phase and increases in the upper dilute phase.

Energy access and security strategies in Small Island Developing States

Small Islands Developing States (SIDS) are isolated and surrounded by ocean. The generation and use of energy resources are two very important aspects for the development of SIDS. Unfortunately, most of SIDS do not use their potential in respect of energy resources, and they as a result have to depend on the import of fossil fuels in order to meet their energy needs. This increases the overall vulnerability of SIDS as they have to depend on the rising or fluctuating fossil fuels prices. Some SIDS, especially in the geographically dispersed Pacific region, do not have proper access to energy whereas other SIDS struggle more with energy security issue. At the same time, SIDS are most vulnerable to the impacts and effects of climate change, as they are among the ones to be most severely affected in case of natural calamities and sea-level rise.Drawing on experiences from Fiji and Mauritius, this paper explains core elements related to energy access and security in SIDS, contextualizes and discusses barriers and list some of the strategies that may be used to ensure access to and a continuous supply of energy in SIDS. A situational analysis of two SIDS outlines their current energy situation and compares their energy policies to globally accepted criteria for SIDS policies as well as with each other. It is claimed that the diverging energy performances of Fiji and Mauritius cannot be explained by policies differences. The reasons for the varying energy performances may therefore lie in the administrative and institutional mechanisms used by the two countries in implementing their energy policies. Finally, to enable SIDS to reduce their overall vulnerability and become truly sustainable islands, it is recommended to undertake careful assessments of the particular local contexts under which island energy regimes operate.

Comparison of PARAFAC components of fluorescent dissolved and particular organic matter from two urbanized rivers.

Excitation-emission matrix (EEM) fluorescence spectroscopy combined with parallel factor analysis (PARAFAC) and multivariable analysis were employed to compare components of dissolved (DOM) and particulate (POM) organic matter and to reveal their correlations with water quality in Baitapuhe River and Xihe River in Shenyang City of northeast China. Eighteen water samples in Baitapuhe River and 16 water samples in Xihe River were collected along a human impact gradient. The DOM concentrations in Baitapuhe River were lower than those in Xihe River, so were the POM concentrations. The DOM in Baitapuhe River mainly derived from livestock wastewater and domestic sewage, which had strong biodegradability. However, the DOM in Xihe River mainly originated from industrial wastewater, which exhibited weak biodegradability. Four PARAFAC components (C1 to C4) were extracted from the DOM and POM. C1 was defined as fulvic-like component, and C2 was assigned as microbial humic component. C3 and C4 were ubiquitous protein-like component, which were referred as tryptophan-like and tyrosine-like components, respectively. The C3 was representative for the DOM in Baitapuhe River. The C3 and C4 were the main fractions of the DOM in Xihe River across the centralized wastewater-discharge region, whereas the C2 was the major component across the dispersed wastewater-discharge region. POM was dominated by the C4 in both rivers. Latent factors of water quality included the DOM, DO, Chl a, NO3-N, and NH4-N in Baitapuhe River, but the latent factors contained DOM, DO, BOD5, and COD in Xihe River. Baitapuhe River was under the aerobic condition, but Xihe River was under the anaerobic condition.

Application of Al-Si Semi-Solid Reaction for Fabricating Harmonic Structured Al Based Alloy

The present work deals with a novel approach of fabricating harmonic structure in Al alloy through the application of semi-solid reaction between Al and Si. The harmonic structured Al was prepared by powder metallurgy route, where the Al and Si powder were subjected to controlled mechanical milling followed by subsequent spark plasma sintering to make a compact. The sintered compact resulted in a network structure of hard interconnected silicon dispersed region combined with Al-Si solid solution phase, known as “shell”, enclosing the soft phase of pure aluminum matrix known as “core”. The harmonic structured Al compact demonstrated retention of both uniform and total elongation as compared to its heterogeneous bimodal structure counterpart, which is the typical feature of the harmonic structured material. The application of semi-solid reaction between Al and Si in fabricating harmonic structure proved to be effective in improving mechanical properties of Al alloy. Present work also discusses the deformation behavior of the sintered compacts, with respect to its strain hardening behavior.

Behaviour of LAPONITE® gels: Rheology, ageing, pH effect and phase state in the presence of dispersant

The zeta potential result showed that the nano-discotic LAPONITE® particles in dispersion were negatively charged across the whole pH range of 3–12. For the 3 wt% gel, no dispersed region was observed within this pH range. The yield stress decreased with increasing pH from 8 to 12. Particle agglomeration affected the yield stress result at low pH. Addition of 6 dwb% pyrophosphate peptizer increased the particle negative zeta potential and caused the 3 wt% gel to be completely dispersed at pH greater than 7. Again the yield stress increased with decreasing pH from 7 to 5. The critical volume fraction equation for the repulsive gel state or EDL caging effect to operate was found to be very useful for determining the phase state of the LAPONITE® gel by the method of exclusion. A liquid sol state was deduced for the 0.45 and 0.89 wt% LAPONITE® dispersions having conductivities equivalent to 0.0015 and 0.003M KCl respectively. An attractive gel state was deduced for the 1.8 dwb% P2O74− shear-thinning LAPONITE® gels with concentration ranging from 1.5 to 5.5 wt% solids. The sol state was attributed to the Newtonian dispersions containing 1.1 to 1.5 wt% solids with 1.8 dwb% P2O74−. The structural recovery behaviour of 3 wt% LAPONITE® gels with 0.001 and 0.01M KNO3, was well described by the two-parameter model of Rich et al. (2011b) and the three-parameter Leong model. The yield stress of the aged gel decreased with increasing temperature which contradicted a theoretical prediction.

Novel phase inversion model for gas–solid turbulent fluidized beds

A novel phase inversion model was developed to describe the hydrodynamics in turbulent fluidized beds. The proposed model was coupled by a bubble–emulsion two phase model and a gas–cluster two phase model, which was derived from the typical mesoscale structures of two coexisting regions in turbulent fluidized beds. In the dense, bubbling region, the bubble-based interphase forces were used, while in the dilute, dispersed region, the cluster-based interphase forces were developed. The criterion of phase inversion, namely bubble-to-gas, emulsion-to-cluster, or vice versa, was also proposed and tested. Simulation results were compared with experimental data under different conditions to validate the model. The interphase forces acting on bubble or cluster were analyzed to study the radial nonuniformity of solid volume fraction. A coarse grid was utilized in this model, showing more capacity for the industrial scale-ups.

Applying fluorescence spectroscopy and multivariable analysis to characterize structural composition of dissolved organic matter and its correlation with water quality in an urban river

Excitation–emission matrix fluorescence spectroscopy combined with multivariable analysis was employed to discriminate structural component of dissolved organic matter (DOM) in Xihe River, an urban river, located in western Shenyang City of China, and to reveal its correlation with water quality. Eight water samples were collected along the river across the centralized wastewater-discharge region and the dispersed wastewater-discharge region. Water quality had deeply deteriorated in the river. Based on DOM fluorescence spectroscopic properties, DOM was composed of tyrosine-like, tryptophan-like, soluble microbial by-product-like, fulvic-like and humic-like materials, among which protein-like material was dominant in the DOM fractions. The DOM in the centralized wastewater-discharge region had a lower level of aromaticity than that in the dispersed wastewater-discharge region, and its humification degree was lower than that in the latter too. Key factors for the trophic state contained NH4-N, DO, DOC, TP, Φ 2,n and Φ 4,n by multivariable analysis. DOM was mainly derived from treated and untreated industrial wastewater with weak biodegradability.

An ex-post CBA for the Stockholm Metro

This paper performs an ex-post cost-benefit analysis (CBA) of the Metro system in Stockholm built in the 1950s. We find that the Metro was socially beneficial and that the largest benefit of the Metro is its capacity, making it possible for many people to travel to and from the city center. We also assess the significance of the wider economic impacts due to labor market distortions and the land-use effects in the case of the Stockholm Metro. The wider economic impacts increase the consumer surplus with 48%, and the yearly income in the county with 1.5%. A land-use model is used to simulate how the land-use has been influenced by the Metro over the years 1956–2006. This simulation indicates that the historical centralized planning of housing along transit corridors has developed the region into a more dispersed region than if the market forces had ruled. The simulation also suggests that the land-use impact from the investment itself is small, but that the land-use impact from the planning accompanying the decision to build the Metro has been substantial.