Educational Disparities Research Articles

Exploring educational disparities in breast cancer dynamics: a comprehensive analysis of incidence, death within 5 years of diagnosis, and mortality in the Belgian context.

Breast cancer is the most prevalent cancer worldwide. Belgium shows high age-standardized incidence rates, but also high survival rates. Like many health outcomes, breast cancer has been associated with multiple factors of socioeconomic status. This paper aims to (a) map educational differences in breast cancer incidence, mortality and death rates within 5 years of diagnosis, (b) update earlier trends in breast cancer mortality rates in Belgium for the 2004-2013 period and (c) investigate the role of fertility indicators as mediating factors in the association between education and breast cancer outcomes. Data consisted of a linkage between the 2001 Belgian Census, register data on mortality and cancer incidence data (2004-2013) from the Belgian Cancer Registry. We calculated age standardized rates, rate ratios (Poisson regression) and hazard ratios (Cox regression) and furthermore also applied the method of Excess Portion Eliminated (EPE) in a mediation analysis of the fertility indicators. We stratified our analysis by age: younger than 50 (premenopausal) and 50 or older (postmenopausal). We observed striking differences in breast cancer incidence, all-cause and cause-specific death rates 5-years after diagnosis by educational level. Higher educated women had higher breast cancer incidence, but also lower all-cause and lower cause-specific death rates; adding up to zero differences in breast cancer mortality in the postmenopausal group and lower breast cancer mortality in the premenopausal group. A notable shift in the social gradient occurred since the 1990's, favouring higher-educated women in recent years. Especially, with regards to survival after diagnosis there is potential for policy intervention. Stage at diagnosis played a crucial role, but differences between socioeconomic groups remained significant after including this parameter. While fertility indicators played a role, the impact was less pronounced than expected.

Abstract 4136636: Analysis of Racial Disparities in the Training Path to Cardiology: Trends from 2012 to 2022

Introduction: Substantial evidence indicates that racial and ethnic diversity among the physician workforce bridges cultural gaps and improves patient care. Trends in racial diversity across the full training pipeline from undergraduate to practicing cardiologist are not yet well-characterized. Aims: We analyze racial disparities at each stage of training towards becoming a practicing cardiologist, and identify changes in these disparities between 2012 and 2022. Methods: We conducted a retrospective analysis of data specifying the racial composition of medical trainees acquired from the Association of American Medical Colleges, Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education, and Electronic Residency Application Service. Population data was acquired from the US Census Bureau. We computed the representation quotient (RQ) for each racial group at each stage to compare representation among the trainees or physicians to age-matched segments of the US population. Results: RQ decreases from undergraduate to active cardiologist for African Americans (0.719 to 0.314), Hispanics (0.660 to 0.359), American Indians (0.551 to 0.221), and Native Hawaiians (1.121 to 0.512). The lowest RQs of 0.133 and 0.137 were observed for American Indian active internal medicine residents and cardiology fellows, respectively. Racial disparities in medical education declined between 2012 and 2022, with RQs increasing from 0.541 to 0.735 for African American medical school matriculants and from 0.444 to 0.578 for Hispanic medical school matriculants. Similar increases were seen in the active cardiologist population for African Americans (2013 RQ: 0.227, 2022 RQ: 0.342) and Hispanics (2013 RQ: 0.283, 2022 RQ: 0.375). Conclusion: While racial diversity in the cardiology training pipeline has increased over the last decade, significant disparities persist for under-represented minorities. Addressing these barriers will help achieve a cardiology workforce reflective of the diverse population it serves.

Disparity and Fragmentation of Formal and Non-Formal Education in Men's Prisons in the Metropolitan Region, Chile

Objective: The goal of this study is to map the education provided in contexts of confinements in the Metropolitan Region of Chile. This article focuses on the manners in which formal and non-formal education is developed in male penitentiaries, those with the largest prison population. Theoretical Framework: The concepts of legal prison and real prison, as well as theories on the purposes of prison education, serve as a basis for the study, giving rise to various ways of implementing education. Method: The methodology is qualitative and the sample includes the total of the prisons in the Metropolitan Region. The sequential design includes a survey in prisons, semi-structured interviews and discussion groups from 68 institutions that provide education in prisons. Results and Discussion: A great disparity and fragmentation of formal and non-formal education in prisons, lack of articulation, low coverage and solitary work are revealed. No planning of the offer or the interests of those deprived of liberty was found. The real prison does not materialize the current public policies in terms of education, maintaining practices from the 19th century. Implications of the research: The results demonstrate the need to articulate public policies in an inter-ministerial plan that incorporates qualitative dimensions, beyond the fulfillment of goals and decisions of each prison. Originality/Value: This research is relevant because there are few studies of the actual functioning of formal and non-formal education in prisons.

Examining the effects of anxiety and education level on mental health: The role of spiritual intelligence as an intervening variable in post COVID-19 patients in Indonesia

Background The COVID-19 pandemic has profoundly affected global health systems and daily life, exacerbating vulnerabilities, particularly in Indonesia. This study investigates the impact of anxiety and education level on mental health, with spiritual intelligence as an intervening variable among post-COVID-19 patients in Indonesia. Methods Utilizing a cross-sectional design, data were collected from 390 post-COVID-19 patients in Indonesia. Structured questionnaires assessed anxiety, education level, spiritual intelligence, and mental health. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was used to analyze the relationships among these variables. Results The findings indicate that anxiety significantly affects both spiritual intelligence and mental health, with spiritual intelligence acting as a mediating factor. Additionally, higher educational attainment is positively associated with enhanced spiritual intelligence and improved mental health outcomes. Conclusions The study underscores the importance of incorporating spiritual development practices into mental health interventions and educational programs to boost resilience and overall well-being in the post-pandemic era. While these findings are promising, the cross-sectional design limits causal inferences, and future research should consider longitudinal studies to examine these relationships over time. These practices can help mitigate the adverse effects of anxiety and educational disparities on mental health.

Bridging disparity in knowledge and utilization of contraceptive methods among married couples in the pastoralist community of Fentale District, Eastern Ethiopia.

Despite progress in national reproductive health, pastoralist regions, including the Fentale District in Eastern Ethiopia, face challenges with limited contraceptive coverage due to gaps in understanding and adoption among couples. This cross-sectional study of 1496 couples in Fentale District, Eastern Ethiopia, from October 1 to December 25, 2021, utilized multistage sampling. Data entered into EPI Data underwent analysis with SPSS (v23.0) and STATA (v14.0), employing descriptive statistics, bivariate analysis, and binary logistic regression to identify predictors of contraceptive knowledge. Of the 1496 couples, 93.8% (1404) participated in the survey. Significant educational disparities were observed, with 53.8% having no formal education, particularly among women (65.2%). Despite this, 80.2% of couples were aware of at least one family planning (FP) method, and 78.6% knew modern methods. The median knowledge of contraception methods was 3 for both genders. Men showed higher awareness of male (43.2%) and female condoms (17.4%) compared to women (31.8% and 6.0%). Overall, 27.4% of couples used contraception, with a significant gender difference: 41.2% of women and 13.5% of men. Modern contraceptives were used by 18.2% of couples, predominantly by women (34.8%). Binary logistic regression analysis indicated positive associations between contraceptive knowledge and education, bank account ownership, occupation, proximity to healthcare, and media exposure, while a nomadic-pastoralist lifestyle and specific treatment preferences showed negative associations. The limited knowledge and utilization of family planning in the Fentale District stem from gaps in comprehension and disparities among couples. Factors influencing this situation include socio-demographic considerations, such as variations based on education, occupation, media exposure, bank account ownership, treatment preferences, and distance from healthcare facilities. This ensures that the interventions are having the desired effect and allows for adjustments as needed to promote family planning uptake.

Collaborative co-design to reimagine teaching practices in hybrid spaces

Following the Future Made in Australia Act, which prioritises quality and equitable education (Albanese, 2024), there is a pressing need for regional universities to provide equal educational opportunities for students regardless of their geographical locations. Furthermore, as outlined in the Australian Universities Accord Final Report, advances in pedagogy are required to fulfil the potential of high-quality online and hybrid learning modes, as well as deliver teaching which supports more diverse student cohorts (Australian Government, 2024). Hybrid learning spaces have the potential to bridge educational disparities by offering accessibility and flexibility to both regional and metropolitan students, allowing them to pursue their education without compromising their other responsibilities (Lightner & Lightner-Laws, 2016). However, significant adjustments to traditional face to face student engagement activities are crucial to the success of hybrid teaching and learning (Gamage et al., 2022). University teachers often have preconceived ideas about these spaces and lack the time, skills, and knowledge to adapt their teaching practices effectively (Bøjer & Brøns, 2022; Raes et al., 2020). Additionally, students struggle to adapt their learning approaches in these spaces, leading to limited engagement and interaction with teachers and peers (Raes et al., 2020). Effective implementation requires support for both teachers and students to reimagine their routines, practices, and expectations in teaching and learning (Bøjer & Brøns, 2022; Fawns et al., 2022; Gamage et al., 2022). To address this challenge, a research project was conducted that involved four phases: (1) Co-design workshop, (2) Resource development, (3) Data collection, (4) Analysis and outcomes. The first and second phases will be discussed in this poster presentation. In the first phase, the research team participated in a collaborative co-design workshop to develop a professional development (PD) module and practical guidelines for teachers. Collaborative co-design is a participatory process where designers and users work together using co-design tools, techniques, and scaffolds to provide expert perspectives on a problem (Bøjer & Brøns, 2022; Sanders and Stappers, 2007). In this process, researchers, teachers, and students collaborated to generate ideas and knowledge for the content of a PD module and the practical guidelines. The workshop was theoretically grounded in Moore’s (1989) three types of interactions and Radcliffe’s (2009) Pedagogy-Space-Technology (PST) framework. The active involvement of teachers and students allowed the research team to explore challenges between learning spaces, technology and teaching practices, focusing on student agency and engagement. Crucial to co-design, the research participants interchanged roles during the workshop, shifting between users, designers, and facilitators depending on individual creativity and expertise in specific areas (Bøjer & Brøns, 2022; Sanders and Stappers, 2007). The design solution of a PD module and practical guidelines was developed and provided teachers with strategies for effective hybrid teaching, addressing both technological challenges and appropriate pedagogies. The future direction of this project is to examine the effectiveness of hybrid learning and teaching by exploring the engagement between teachers and students online and on campus. The findings advance pedagogy by promoting equitable engagement for online and on-campus students, ensuring consistent learning experiences and bridging geographical gaps.

“My Anxiety Has Been Heightened”: Black Mothers’ Concerns Regarding Children’s Return to In-person Learning Following COVID-19-Related Remote Learning

Black mothers experienced heightened concern about their children returning to in-person learning following COVID-19 related remote learning. Guided by critical race theory and racial protectionism, we sought to deepen our understanding of Black mothers’ concerns and experiences related to their preschoolers’ return to in-person learning during the 2021 to 2022 academic school year. We conducted five focus groups. Eighteen Black mothers (mean age = 32.90 years) of children enrolled in prekindergarten in the recently ended school year participated in a focus group with an average of 4 participants per focus group. Using reflexive thematic analysis, researchers generated the following themes: children contracting COVID-19, classroom closures and instructional concerns, bullying from other students, and school shootings. Study findings provide insight into Black mothers’ protectionism and concerns about educational systems, emphasizing the need to address health and physical safety concerns in early childhood settings to reduce educational disparities.

Leveraging Information Technologies for Organisational Learning and Knowledge Management: Enhancing Access and Educational Outcomes for Rural Students

PurposeThis study investigates the role of information technologies in enhancing organisational learning and knowledge management in South African rural universities, with the goal of improving access and educational outcomes for rural students. The research focuses on how digital tools can create more equitable learning environments and address the unique challenges faced by rural institutions. Study design/methodology/approachA scoping review of literature from 2000 to 2024 was conducted, employing the Diffusion of Innovation theory and Social Pedagogy Justice framework to analyse the impact of digital platforms on organisational learning and knowledge management in rural universities. The study examines how these tools can help bridge the gap between rural and urban students and address the challenges of limited resources and digital divides. FindingsThe study finds that information technologies can significantly improve organisational learning processes and knowledge management in rural universities by providing tools that promote inclusion and participation. Digital technologies, when thoughtfully implemented, can help reduce educational disparities by enhancing access to resources and supporting collaboration between students in urban and rural areas. The research suggests that a strategic approach to technology adoption, tailored to the local context, is key to achieving more equitable educational outcomes. Originality/valueThis research provides valuable insights for policymakers and educational leaders on how to leverage information technologies to advance social justice in education. By focusing on rural universities in South Africa, the study highlights the importance of addressing infrastructural and resource challenges while using digital tools to foster inclusion and equity. The findings offer practical strategies for enhancing the effectiveness of digital platforms in improving educational outcomes for traditionally underserved communities.

Exploring Gender Disparities in Education: Implications for Policy and Practice

This literature review critically examines relevant literature on gender disparities in educational contexts, with a particular focus on factors contributing to gender imbalances in student applications and enrollment figures. By analyzing studies and expert insights from Jennie Weiner, Azza Karam, and findings from a Yale study on teachers' perceptions, this review aims to uncover the underlying mechanisms of gender bias and propose informed strategies to foster a more gender-inclusive educational environment.

Study on the Development of Higher Education in China Based on Economic Growth and Technological Advancement

This paper investigates the dynamic relationship between higher education, economic growth, and technological advancement in China. As the country has rapidly expanded its higher education system, challenges such as educational disparities, quality inconsistencies, and the limitations of an exam-oriented framework have become increasingly evident. Utilizing a grey prediction model, the study examines how economic and technological developments have both enhanced and complicated the landscape of higher education, exacerbating urban-rural divides and limiting opportunities for critical thinking and creativity. To address these challenges, the paper proposes strategic interventions, including curriculum reform, increased access to higher education, and the adoption of active learning methodologies. These strategies aim to foster a more equitable, innovative, and responsive educational system that aligns with China's long-term developmental objectives. The findings provide valuable insights for policymakers seeking to navigate the complexities of modernizing China's higher education while ensuring broad-based, sustainable growth.

Household Consumption of Adequately Iodized Salt: A Multi-Country Analysis of Socioeconomic Disparities.

Despite global efforts to promote universal salt iodization, iodine deficiency remains a public health issue in developing countries. This study assessed the proportion and sociodemographic characteristics of households consuming adequately iodized salt in 49 low- and middle-income countries. Data from DHS surveys of 49 low- and middle-income countries (2005-2021) were used to analyze household iodized salt prevalence. R version 4.0 was employed for statistical analyses. A random-effects meta-analysis was conducted to estimate overall and regional prevalence. We found that 83.4% of households consume adequately iodized salt, although with high heterogeneity (I2 = 100.0%). The East Asia and Pacific and the Europe and Central Asia regions showed high consumption rates of 87.6% and 87.7%, respectively, while Latin America and the Caribbean presented a significantly lower proportion of 30.8%. The study highlights the need for enhanced public health strategies to increase iodized salt consumption, especially in low-income and rural households. Addressing disparities in access, education, and affordability is crucial for improving iodine intake and preventing deficiency disorders, particularly among vulnerable populations like children and pregnant women.

Evaluation of Planning for The Completion of Nine Years of Compulsory Basic Education

This study focuses on the evaluation of the planning of 9-year compulsory basic education in East Lombok Regency, with the main objective of assessing the effectiveness of planning oriented to minimum service standards (MSS). This education planning is considered important in addressing the gap in access to education and improving the quality of basic education at the regional level. The research hypothesis is that the proper implementation of MSS in basic education planning can significantly improve access and quality of education and reduce illiteracy rates in the region. This research method combines qualitative and quantitative approaches through in-depth interviews, observations, and documentation, involving stakeholders such as education officials, school principals, and community leaders. This study found that the planning structure and products have included an in-depth analysis and appropriate budget allocation, but budget challenges and community support are aspects that need to be improved. The discussion of the research results emphasizes the importance of involving the community more actively and strengthening cross-sectoral collaboration to optimize the planning and implementation of basic education. Overall, this study makes a significant contribution to understanding the complexity of basic education planning in the region and offers recommendations for increasing the effectiveness of SPM implementation, which can play a role in improving the quality of education and reducing educational disparities in East Lombok Regency.

Tracing the educational journey of Indian women across generations: A study of multigenerational education mobility in India

This study investigates intergenerational mobility and socioeconomic disparities in women's education in India, utilizing data from the Longitudinal Ageing Study in India (LASI) Wave 1. It uniquely examines three generations of women: the second generation (G2), aged 45–75, who reported on their own education, their mother's education (G1), and their daughter's education (G3). Despite India's economic growth over the past three decades, women's educational status remains poor, influenced by enduring gender discrimination. The study constructs educational transition matrices and measures two mobility indices: M1, which represents the expected proportion of daughters transitioning from their mother's educational level, and M2, which measures the extent of transitions between educational categories. M1 is further broken down into upward and downward mobility. The findings highlight significant progress in educational mobility across generations, with notable increases in upward mobility from the grandmother-mother to the mother-daughter generations, indicating a positive trend. Urban women show significantly higher levels of educational mobility compared to their rural counterparts. However, the study also identifies a decline in multigenerational educational mobility among Muslim women. Persistent caste-based disparities in education are observed, although there is a promising trend of narrowing gaps in recent years. Additionally, the study reveals substantial progress in educational attainment among the most economically disadvantaged groups compared to previous generations.

Sustainable education for underserved U.S. communities: Empowering students through environmental literacy and green job pathways

This research paper explores the integration of environmental literacy and sustainability-focused education within underserved U.S. communities, aiming to empower students and promote pathways to green jobs. As these communities often face significant educational disparities and limited economic opportunities, the study highlights the importance of environmental literacy as a critical component of education that fosters essential skills such as critical thinking, problem-solving, and civic engagement. The paper discusses best practices for developing and implementing sustainability-focused curricula, effective teaching strategies, and the significance of local partnerships between educational institutions and industry stakeholders. Furthermore, it emphasizes the potential for green jobs to drive economic growth while aligning with national efforts toward environmental justice and sustainable development. The findings underscore the necessity of a multifaceted approach involving policymakers, educators, and community leaders to create equitable opportunities and foster a sustainable future for underserved communities.

Bibliometric Analysis of Education Budget Management and School Infrastructure Quality in Disadvantaged Areas

This study presents a bibliometric analysis of research focused on education budget management and school infrastructure quality in disadvantaged areas from 2000 to 2024. The analysis explores key themes such as financial management, infrastructure development, and the role of technology in enhancing educational outcomes. Results reveal that effective budget management and strategic resource allocation are pivotal in improving school facilities and overall educational quality, particularly in under-resourced regions. The integration of technology, accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic, offers promising solutions for bridging gaps in access and learning quality, although the digital divide remains a significant challenge. Furthermore, strong leadership and community involvement are identified as crucial for the successful implementation of educational reforms. This study underscores the importance of a holistic approach that combines financial management, infrastructural improvements, and technological integration to address educational disparities in disadvantaged areas.

Effectiveness of government policy interventions towards enhancing access to pre-primary and primary education by street children in North Rift Kenya

An estimated 150 million children live on the streets globally, with many not enrolled in school. This growing issue requires urgent attention. UN Sustainable Development Goal 4, Target 5, aims to eliminate educational disparities for marginalized groups like street children, emphasizing the need to address prejudice in education access.The Kenyan government has developed measures to improve all children's access to education, particularly at the pre-primary and primary levels, in light of its signature on the United Nations convention. Government funding for the creation and execution of policy initiatives targeted at improving the access to education for these socially marginalised populations has been consistently large. Many street children still do not go to school though. In this regard a study was conducted to assess the effectiveness of government policy interventions towards enhancing access to pre-primary and primary education by street children. The study used mixed method research and pragmatic paradigm. By using both purposeful and random sampling, a sample size of 322 was selected. The respondents comprised of Street children, county directors of education, quality assurance officers, officers in the Department of Children Welfare, urban primary school teachers, non-governmental organisations, and community-based organisations that assist street children. Data was collected using observation guides, in-depth interviews, and questionnaires. Descriptive and inferential statistics as well as theme analysis were used to analyse the data, respectively. The results showed a statistically significant relationship between government policy interventions and street children's access to pre-primary and primary education in North Rift Kenya; specifically, the national pre-primary education policy had a Pearson correlation coefficient of 0.711, while the inclusive education policy had a coefficient of 1.0. The research additionally demonstrated the necessity of reinforcing the involvement of other relevant parties in improving street children's access to pre-primary and primary education.

Exploring an Understanding of Menarche and Its Challenges Among Primary School Girls in Tanzania

This study examines the understanding and challenges of menarche among primary school girls in Tanzania, addressing three key objectives: assessing awareness of menarche and its associated challenges, evaluating management strategies, and determining the impact of menstrual disorders on academic performance. Utilizing a mixed-methods approach with questionnaires and semi-structured interviews, data were collected from four primary schools involving 60 female pupils from standards five to seven and four matron teachers. Findings reveal that while 51.7% of pupils have some understanding of menstruation, nearly 50% remain uninformed, especially in lower grades. The study also shows that menstruation onset is a significant developmental milestone, with 85% of Standard Seven pupils menstruating compared to 25% in Standard Five. Challenges such as stomach pains, lack of appetite, and inadequate access to sanitary products were also reported by 45% of students. Infrastructural deficits, including a lack of private changing rooms and proper disposal systems, were further reported to hinder effective menstrual management. Additionally, traditional practices for managing menstrual pain were reported, highlighting the need for integrating professional medical advice. Furthermore, menstrual challenges led to absenteeism, decreased concentration, and reduced confidence among girls, which directly affected their educational outcomes and exacerbated gender disparities in education. Based on these findings, the study advocates for early menstrual education, improved school infrastructure, and comprehensive support systems to enhance girls’ well-being and academic success, presenting menstruation as a socio-educational issue that requires a holistic, integrated approach from all stakeholders.

An Analysis of the Development of Sex Education in China

In contemporary China, despite growing awareness and attention to sexual education issues, the promotion and popularization of comprehensive sexual education remain hindered by deeply ingrained conservative attitudes that have persisted for millennia. These attitudes have led to sub-optimal outcomes, including limited access to accurate information and resources, which can negatively impact public health and social development. This study examines the historical development and current state of sexual education in China, as well as the various challenges that hinder its advancement, through an analysis of regionally gathered data. The study highlights the regional disparities in sexual education across China. Urban areas tend to have more progressive attitudes and better access to resources than rural regions, where conservative views and limited infrastructure can further restrict the dissemination of vital information. These disparities underscore the need for tailored approaches that address the specific needs of different communities. To overcome these challenges and optimize promotional efforts, the study suggests several key strategies, including formulating relevant policies by the government, managing relevant courses in schools, and parents’ understanding of related knowledge. By implementing these strategies, it is hoped that promoting and popularizing sexual education in China will lead to improved health outcomes, greater gender equality, and a more informed society overall.

Heterogeneity in Damages from a Pandemic

Abstract We use nationally-representative linked survey and administrative data to document socioeconomic and demographic disparities in the economic and health effects of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States during its first two years. Impacts on all-cause mortality and on employment were concentrated in the same racial/ethnic, education, industry, and occupation groups. Black-White and Hispanic-White disparities in mortality impacts narrowed over the two years, but educational disparities persisted. For economic impacts, only Hispanic-White disparities narrowed. Lower-income individuals experienced greater mortality impacts and this gradient steepened in the second year. Our findings, using consistent methods and measures, highlight the pandemic's heterogeneous impacts.

Revealing Cultural Dynamics in WAIS-IV Performance: a Comparative Analysis of Age Cohorts in Taiwanese and U.S. Populations.

This study examined the relationship between culture and cognitive abilities by comparing WAIS-IV subtests, index scores, and Full-Scale Intelligence Quotient (FSIQ) scores across various age groups in the Taiwanese and U.S. populations. The Taiwanese and U.S. versions of WAIS-IV are comprehensively compared, examining subtest items, psychometrics, and sample characteristics. Scaled scores are compared by extracting raw scores with a scaled score of 10 from each subtest scale in the Taiwanese version and applying U.S. age norms to acquire U.S. scaled scores. Despite the mean FSIQ score closely aligning with the U.S. sample, notable discrepancies are evident in the Taiwanese Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI) score, potentially influenced by cultural fairness of the tests. Significant variations are observed among age cohorts in the Taiwanese sample, with younger individuals excelling in Processing Speed Index, Working Memory Index, Perceptual Reasoning Index, and FSIQ, while maintaining comparable VCI scores to their U.S. counterparts. Conversely, older cohorts demonstrate lower performance across various domains, except for visuospatial reasoning and organizational skills, compared to their U.S. counterparts. These subtest variations robustly correlate with educational disparities between the Taiwanese and U.S. samples. Despite the similarity in factor structures between the Taiwanese and U.S. versions of WAIS-IV, this study reveals cultural bias in both verbal and non-verbal subtests. The study highlights the intricate interplay among cognitive processing styles, cultural influences, and educational factors contributing to performance disparities.