Disinhibition Research Articles

Prediction of the Learners' Attitudes Toward E-Learning Regarding Their Sensation-Seeking Traits in Iran

This study aimed to predict the medical students' attitudes toward e-learning concerning their sensation-seeking traits during the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown. For this purpose, through a cross-sectional study, the required data was collected using two questionnaires from 921 students at a University of Medical Sciences. The findings showed that there is a significant negative correlation between the participants' attitudes toward e-learning regarding the four investigated personality traits, thrill and adventure seeking (TSA), experience seeking (ES), disinhibition (DIS), and boredom susceptibility (BS), r= -0.38, -0.20, -0.07, and -0.09, respectively (p < 0.05). In addition, the three traits of ES, TAS, and Dis could significantly predict 15.9% of the participants' attitudes toward e-learning. The findings imply that higher sensation seekers may not welcome e-learning programs.

Dispositional characteristics in firearm ownership and purchasing behavior during the 2020 purchasing surge

RationaleIn 2020 the U.S. saw a firearm purchasing surge that was synchronous with the onset of the SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) pandemic and notable community unrest. Extant literature has highlighted a potential cohort effect among 2020 firearm purchasers and the importance of characterizing these individuals to inform policy and interventions. Dispositional traits have received minimal attention in the firearm literature overall, despite research that indicates dispositional traits impact intervention interest, access, and effectiveness. ObjectiveThe current study examined two dispositional traits indicated as important in firearm research – threat sensitivity (THT) and disinhibition (DIS). We hypothesized that 1) firearm owners overall would have lower THT and higher DIS relative to non-firearm owners, 2) mean levels of DIS (but not THT) would be higher among firearm owners who purchased during the 2020 purchasing surge relative to firearm owners who did not and non-firearm owners, and 3) DIS (but not THT) would be related to future plans for purchasing such that mean levels of DIS would be highest amongst those who have plans. MethodsThis study used an online-recruited sample (N = 3500) matched to 2010 US Census data. ResultsFirearm owners demonstrated lower THT and higher DIS than non-firearm owners. 2020 firearm purchasers had higher DIS compared to non-firearm owners and non-purchasing firearm owners, while firearm owners who did not purchase had lower THT compared to non-owners and 2020 purchasers. Plans to purchase in the next 12 months was associated with higher DIS relative to those undecided or without plans. ConclusionsIn combination with prior research, findings suggest elevated DIS may drive purchasing as a danger and distress management strategy, while low THT may protect against emotion-based firearm purchasing. Further research is needed to clarify the directionality of these relationships and to identify other dispositional characteristics of those purchasing firearms in 2020.

Preliminary Scales for ICD-11 Personality Disorder: Self and Interpersonal Dysfunction Plus Five Personality Disorder Trait Domains.

The ICD-11 personality disorder model is the first fully dimensional assessment of personality pathology. It consists of a personality disorder (PD) dysfunction-severity dimension, which encompasses both self- and interpersonal dysfunction, and six optional qualifiers for five prominent personality traits—Negative Affectivity (NA), Detachment (DET), Dissociality (DSL), Disinhibition (DSN), and Anankastia (ANK)—plus a borderline pattern that is defined by the criteria of DSM-IV borderline PD. This article reports on the development of a new self-report measure to assess self- and interpersonal dysfunction and the five trait qualifiers. It is the first comprehensive measure of the ICD-11 PD model in that (a) it is the only one to include both PD dysfunction-severity as well as trait scales and because (b) it is based on the Clinical Description and Diagnostic Guidelines, which are more detailed than the “statistical” model description that is currently on the ICD-11 website. The authors wrote 992 items and then reduced the pool to 300 items by eliminating redundancy and selecting the consensus best few items for each subconstruct. Data were collected using an online sample of 383 Prolific workers. Using exploratory factor analysis, seven domain scales were developed, each of which contained two to four scales assessing components of the domain. These preliminary scales’ psychometrics were excellent, as were the domains’ and their components’ convergent and discriminant validity, with a few generally minor exceptions. Structural analyses at the component level revealed a three-factor structure consisting of two moderately correlated Internalizing factors, one centered on Self Dysfunction with two NA components and a DSN component (Distractibility) and the other on Interpersonal Dysfunction with DET and ANK components; as well as an Externalizing factor with DSL and a DSN component (Reckless Impulsivity) that was uncorrelated with the other two factors. Two aspects of the results in particular are striking: (1) ANK was not the opposite end of a DSN dimension, but rather contributed to an Internalizing Interpersonal Dysfunction dimension and (2) DSN had both an Internalizing and an Externalizing component. Implications of the findings and study limitations are discussed.

Does pregnancy make women more cautious and calm? The impact of pregnancy on risk decision-making

AbstractDuring pregnancy, a variety of psychological and physical changes occur in women, which may have different impacts on risk decision-making involving different processes systems. Based on the dual-process theories of decision-making, using the Columbia Card Task (CCT) as the experimental paradigm, which can trigger deliberative versus affective decision-makings respectively, this study recruited 240 pregnant women and non-pregnant women aged 20-40 as the experimental group and control group respectively, investigated how pregnancy impacted on women’s risk decision-making, as well as the possible roles played by a series of psychological factors (impulsivity; sensation seeking; emotional state) and physiological factors (gestational age; human Chorionic Gonadotropin, hCG; progesterone) in the above process. The results were as follows: (a) Compared with non-pregnant women, pregnant women tended to choose fewer cards, indicating a higher risk aversion consistent with a more conservative strategy, both in cold and hot CCTs; in both cold and hot CCTs, compared with pregnant women in the second trimester of pregnancy, pregnant women in the first and the third trimesters of pregnancy had a higher risk aversion tendency. (b) Pregnant women had lower levels of all dimensions of sensation seeking than did non-pregnant women, pregnant women in the third trimester of pregnancy had lower levels of Disinhibition (DIS) and Boredom Susceptibility (BS) of sensation seeking than pregnant women in the first and the second trimesters of pregnancy, but there was no significant difference in levels of emotional state or impulsivity between pregnant woman and non-pregnant women. (c) DIS of sensation seeking played a fully mediating role in the impact of pregnancy on hot CCT performance. (d) Both hCG and progesterone levels were negatively correlated with pregnant women’s hot CCT performances. (e) Positive emotion played a partial mediating role in the effect of progesterone on hot CCT performance of pregnant women.

Disinhibition of the public through happening-performance (II.)

Disinhibition of the public through happening-performance (II.)

Risk factors for being a victim of online grooming in adolescents.

The risk of child grooming has spread exponentially with the massive access of adolescents to social networks and the internet. The aim of the study was to examine the personal factors (body self-esteem and disinhibition) and erotic-sexual factors (sexual initiation strategies and erotic-pornographic sexting) that predict grooming. The sample was comprised of 1,200 adolescents aged between 12 and 16 years (M = 14.54, SD = 1.17; 50.83% girls). A cross-sectional design with self-report data was used and structural equation modeling (SEM) with mediation analysis was performed. The results indicated two paths explaining child grooming: 1) physical attractiveness and disinhibition are indirectly associated with grooming through erotic sexting and direct sexual initiation strategies; both of which partially mediate this relationship; 2) disinhibited behavior has an indirect impact on grooming; pornographic sexting and coercive strategies acting as mediators. The semi-partial mediation model explains 54% of the variance of grooming. These findings highlight the urgent need to implement prevention programs considering these attitudes and behaviors that function as precursors of victimization and the risk of falling into pedophile networks.

Which Adolescent Girls Are Vulnerable to Nonsuicidal Self-Injury?

Nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI), one of the strongest predictors of later suicidality, typically begins in adolescence. Disinhibition and impulsivity

Pharmacogenetics of Antidepressant-Induced Disinhibition

Pharmacogenetics of Antidepressant-Induced Disinhibition

Alcohol use in adolescents and its association with sensation seeking and impulsivity: A survey in the city of Sfax, Tunisia

Although the increase of media interest for psychoactive substances use, especially alcohol, among young people, since the revolution, Tunisia has few epidemiological studies on this subject, which does not allow having a clear idea of the importance of the problem and its different determinants. To assess the prevalence of alcohol consumption among adolescents in the region of Sfax (Tunisia) and to determine its relations to the two personality dimensions: sensation seeking and impulsivity. This was a cross-sectional study involving 317 middle and high school students in Sfax (Tunisia). We used the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) to assess risky alcohol-consumption, the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale(BIS-11) to assess the degree of impulsivity and the Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS-V) to assess the level of sensation seeking. The average age of students was 15.79±1.5 years with a sex-ratio of 1.07. The prevalence of experimenters (who had drunk alcohol at least once in their lifetime) was 19.6% while that of current consumers (who had drunk alcohol more than one time during the past 12 months before the survey) was 8.8%. Among those who reported alcohol use during the last year, 42.8% were alcohol-dependent, according to the AUDIT. The analysis of personality dimensions showed a significant association between current alcohol consumption and sensation seeking (P<0.001) in particular on the dimensions of disinhibition (DIS), experience seeking (ES) and boredom susceptibility (BS) (P respectively: <0.001; 0.002 and 0.001). Total impulsivity and motor and attention impulsivity were associated with current alcohol consumption (respective P: 0.001, 0.005 and 0.015). Our study of schooled Tunisian adolescents shows that sensation seeking and impulsivity are associated with the development of alcohol use. Such a behavior is worrisome because it appears to be quite frequent and often problematic.

Personality differences amongst drag racers and archers: implications for sport injury rehabilitation.

Personality trait of an athlete is a significant factor in sports injury rehabilitation. The aim of the present study is to investigate whether there are differences in personality traits between male and female, professional and amateur athletes from sports representing two ends of extreme to traditional namely; drag racing and archery. Overall 189 male and female, professional and amateur drag racers (n=144) and archers (n=45) took part in this study. Participants completed the personality traits of extroversion and neuroticism as measured by Eysenck’s classic Personality Inventory dimensions and thrill and adventure seeking (TAS), experience seeking (ES), disinhibition (DIS), boredom susceptibility (BS), and sensation seeking (SS) as measured by Zuckerman’s Sensation Seeking Scale. The results showed that professionals scored significantly lower on neuroticism compared to amateurs. Drag racers scored significantly higher on TAS, DIS, and SS compared to archers and there were gender differences amongst archers on TAS and SS with males scoring higher than females. Such differences in personality factors and the readiness to take risks, lack of caution, and adventurous spirit can influence the risk of injury in athletes and indeed may influence the outcome of rehabilitation. Practitioners would need to recognise difference in personality traits associated with the type of sport and the choice of interventions strategies.

Identifying Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD) and Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder (DSED) in a clinical sample of high risk children

Identifying Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD) and Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder (DSED) in a clinical sample of high risk children

Understanding of Burning Mouth Syndrome Based on Psychological Aspects.

Burning mouth syndrome (BMS) is a chronic pain condition characterised by a persistent burning sensation in clinically normal oral mucosa. BMS most commonly occurs in middleaged and elderly women. Various local and systemic factors can cause oral burning symptoms. When all possible local and systemic factors are excluded, burning mouth symptoms can be diagnosed as BMS. Psychophysical tests and histopathological data suggest the involvement of peripheral and central neuropathic mechanisms in BMS etiopathogenesis. Psychological problems are frequently observed in BMS patients. Several mechanisms, including increased parafunctional habits, steroid dysregulation, central disinhibition due to taste dysfunction, and low dopamine levels in the brain, have been proposed as an explanation for the role of psychological factors in BMS pathophysiology. However, the causal relationship between BMS and psychological problems remains controversial. Given the neuropathic nature of BMS, treatment for it is similar to other neuropathic pain conditions. Although various treatment modalities, including pharmacological intervention, behavioural therapy and psychotherapy, have been proposed, there is no definitive treatment always effective for the majority of BMS patients. In conclusion, for better understanding of the relationship between BMS and psychological factors, well-designed prospective studies are needed. In addition, the evaluation and treatment of psychological problems are essential for successful management of BMS patients.

Rakshasa grahonmada: Antisocial personality disorder with psychotic mania?

“Bhuta vidya”/“Graha chikitsa” is one among the eight specialties of Ayurveda. This specialty deals with the mode of affl iction by evil spirits and making offerings to various grahas (supernatural powers/extraterrestrial forces/evil spirits) such as deva, pishacha, gandharva, yaksha, rakshasa, etc., for cure of diseases originating from their malignant infl uence. Acharya Vagbhata has described 18 types of bhootonmada (psychosis caused by affl iction of grahas). “Rakshasa grahonmada” (RG) is one among those 18 types. In Ayurveda, till date, the concept of grahnomada as a whole or individually is under explored. The present study aims at better understanding of RG in particular with modern research and literature support. RG is characterized by krodha drishti, bhairavaasya, bhrukuti udvahantam (anger, aggression, violent), tvaritam abhidhavantam, ruvantam, sambhramam, praharantam (agitation, impulsiveness, restlessness, hyperactivity), nashta nidra (sleeplessness), nisha vihaari (wandering at nights), anna dveshinam (aversion to food), shooram (grandiosity, violent, aggressive), nirlajja (disinhibition), ati balinam (excessive energy levels), stree priyam (hypersexuality), madya priyam (alcoholic/substance abuse), rakta, amisha priyam (food cravings to nonvegetarian items), deenam (depressed), shankitam (suspicious/paranoid), akasmaat rudantam, hasantam and gaayantam (inappropriate behavior) and nirarthakam paribhashanam (irrelevant speech) etc., features. These features of RG are similar to the condition of “antisocial personality disorder” (ASPD) comorbid with “psychotic mania.”RG is similar to ASPD comorbid with other conditions such as mania, schizophrenia, and substance abuse.

Comparative study on neuropsychological tests for typical Alzheimer's disease, frontal variant of Alzheimer's disease and behavioral variant of frontotemporal dementia

Objective To compare the neuropsychological features and other clinical and imaging characteristics among patients with typical Alzheimer's disease (TAD), frontal variant Alzheimer's disease (fvAD) and behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia (bvFTD). Methods Neuropsychological scales were used to evaluate the cognitive function and neuropsychiatric symptoms of nine patients with fvAD, 30 patients with bvFTD and 32 patients with typical AD (TAD). The apolipoprotein E (ApoE) e4 allele and brain imaging techniques, including the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 11C-Pittsburgh compound B positron emission tomography (PIB-PET), and 18F-deoxyglucose positron emission tomography (FDG-PET), were used for the differential diagnosis of fvAD and bvFTD. Results There were no significant differences in general cognitive function or daily activity in patients among the three groups.However, the cognitive subscale scores of Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) scale, including visual acuity and executive function, delayed recall, and orientation, were significantly different among the groups (Z=7.891, P=0.035; Z=7.412, P=0.031; Z=6.437, P=0.043, respectively). The clock drawing test (CDT) score of TAD group was higher than that in the bvFTD and fvAD groups (Z=8.673, P=0.020), while the neuropsychological questionnaire (NPI) scores of the bvFTD and fvAD groups were higher than those of the TAD group (Z=7.577, P=0.023). Meanwhile, the incidences of agitation, disinhibition and abnormal behavior of NPI in the bvFTD and fvAD groups were higher than those in the TAD group (χ2=11.139, P=0.004; χ2=6.481, P=0.039; χ2=6.812, P=0.033, respectively). The frequencies of the ApoE e4 allele were 44.4% in the fvAD group and 33.3% in the bvFTD group, which were not significant different from that in the TAD group (40.6%). Furthermore, patients in the fvAD group were associated with decreased regional cerebral glucose metabolism and amyloid deposition in the temporal-parietal cortex evaluated by FDG-PET and PIB-PET. Conclusions Neuropsychological evaluation is valuable for the differential diagnosis of TAD, fvAD and bvFTD.The frequencies of the ApoEe4 allele are similar among the three groups.FDG-PET and PIB-PET imaging plays an important role in the diagnosis of variant types of Alzheimer's disease. Key words: Alzheimer disease; Frontal lobe; Dementia; Neuropsychological tests; Apolipoprotein E4; Positron-emission tomography

Rapid eye movement sleep study on different episode types of depression and post-stroke depression

Objective To explore the rapid eye movement (REM) sleep characteristics of different episode types of depression and post-stroke depression (PSD) patients and provide support for clinical diagnosis, treatment and prognosis. Methods Patients with single-episode depression (group A, n=22), patients with recurrent depression (≥2 episodes, group B, n=26) and patients with PSD (group C, n=19) were included from Henan Provincial Mental Hospital. 20 healthy volunteers were assigned to control group.Participants in the 4 groups were performed polysomnographic recordings (PSG) from 9 PM to 6 AM before treatment.The 3 patients groups were performed the second PSG recordings and HAMD score at the end of 6 week SSRIs treatment. The REM indexes of 4 groups were compared and analyzed. Results First PSG detection showed that REM sleep latencies (RL) were shorter in group A and B (A: (65.57±18.29) min, B: (66.32±15.46) min) than that in group C ( (79.17±20.18) min ) and control group( (87.24±16.55) min); REM activity (RA) (A: (99.82±25.71) u, B: (104.70±28.23) u)and REM density (RD) (A: (81.06±19.35)%, B: (86.61±23.83)%) were increased more significantly in group A and B than those in control group ((79.61±18.40) u; (68.11±17.54)%); REM sleep time (RT) were decreased more significantly in group C ((51.66±22.26) min) than that in group A((71.43±20.70) min), group B((74.81±17.52) min) and control group ((70.46±16.35) min)(P 0.05). There was no significant difference in the indexes of REM in group C; RT was prolonged ((51.66±22.26) min vs(68.37±20.16) min)in group C, the difference was statistically significant (P<0.05). Conclusion Most of depression patients with different episode types have REM disinhibition phenomenon. RD increase may be REM characteristic type of depression patient. Sleep disorders of PSD patients are mainly poor sleep process and sleep continuity and have no characteristics of REM sleep disorder of depression ones. Key words: Depression; Post-stroke depression; Sleep disorders; Rapid eye movement sleep; Polysomnogram

Psychoneurometric assessment of dispositional liabilities for suicidal behavior: phenotypic and etiological associations.

Can core genetic liabilities for suicidal behavior be indexed using psychological and neural indicators combined? The current work addressed this question by examining phenotypic and genetic associations of two biobehavioral traits, threat sensitivity (THT) and disinhibition (DIS) - operationalized as psychoneurometric variables (i.e., composites of psychological-scale and neurophysiological measures) - with suicidal behaviors in a sample of adult twins. Participants were 444 identical and fraternal twins recruited from an urban community. THT was assessed using a psychological-scale measure of fear/fearlessness combined with physiological indicators of reactivity to aversive pictures, and DIS was assessed using scale measures of disinhibitory tendencies combined with indicators of brain response from lab performance tasks. Suicidality was assessed using items from structured interview and questionnaire protocols. THT and DIS each contributed uniquely to prediction of suicidality when assessed psychoneurometrically (i.e., as composites of scale and neurophysiological indicators). In addition, these traits predicted suicidality interactively, with participants high on both reporting the greatest degree of suicidal behaviors. Biometric (twin-modeling) analyses revealed that a high percentage of the predictive association for each psychoneurometric trait (83% for THT, 68% for DIS) was attributable to genetic variance in common with suicidality. Findings indicate that psychoneurometric assessments of biobehavioral traits index genetic liability for suicidal behavior, and as such, can serve as innovative targets for research on core biological processes contributing to severe psychopathology, including suicidal proclivities and actions.

Stress-Induced Binge Eating: An Objective Marker of Vulnerability

Binge episodes in bulimia nervosa (BN) are often triggered by acute stress, which may lead to increased eating either through behavioral disinhibition

Physical activity, eating traits and weight in young adulthood: a cross-sectional and longitudinal study.

SummaryObjectiveTo investigate the association between eating traits (e.g. dietary restraint or opportunistic eating) and weight – both cross‐sectionally and longitudinally – and whether physical activity (PA) moderates these associations.MethodsTwo‐hundred seventy young adults (21–35 years; BMI: 25.40 kg/m2 [SD = 3.90 kg/m2]; 48.90% female) participated in this 12‐month observational cohort study. Cognitive Restraint (CR), Disinhibition (DI) and Hunger (HU) were measured using the Three‐Factor Eating Questionnaire at baseline and 12 months. Participants were measured at quarterly intervals for objectively measured PA and anthropometrics. Cross‐sectional and longitudinal models determined if eating traits were associated with weight or weight change, and whether these associations were moderated by PA.ResultsAt baseline, higher CR (B = 0.429, p < 0.01) and DI (B = 0.942, p < 0.01) were associated with higher weight. The associations of DI (B = −0.008 p = 0.02) and HU (B = −0.006, p = 0.04) with weight were moderated by PA at baseline. The longitudinal model for CR determined PA altered the relationship between change in CR and weight change (B = 0.004, p < 0.01).ConclusionsEating traits and PA are associated with weight and weight change. However, to elucidate how PA and eating traits directly affect weight changes, future weight loss interventions should investigate whether improving eating traits and concomitantly increasing PA amplify weight loss.

Research progress of anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis

Anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) antibody encephalitis is an autoimmune encephalitis manifesting subacutely with prominent aberrant movements and psychiatric symptoms, which associated with antibodies against NR1or NR2 subunits of the NMDAR.The disease is not rare, early diagnosis and immune treatment can improve prognosis and reduce the recurrence.The epidemiology, mechanisms, clinical presentation, treatment and prognosis of the disease were reviewed in order to enhance the cognition of anti-NMDAR encephalitis. Key words: Anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis; Disinhibited behaviour; Psychiatric symptoms; Immunotherapy; Remove teratomas

Cyber Bullying in the Netherlands: A Criminological Perspective

IntroductionThe internet has become a common and indispensable phenomenon in our society. At the same time, cyber crime generates a lot of media attention. Furthermore, reports on the prevalence of cyber crime appear regularly and the Dutch government prioritizes the tracking and prevention of cyber crime. The term 'cyber crime' refers to criminal and deviant behaviour through the use of online technologies (Wall, 2001; Yar, 2012). Cyber crime is, either implicitly or explicitly, conceptualized as the contemporary counterpart of traditional crime, i.e., crimes that occur only in the offline world (Taylor, Fritsch, Liederbach, & Holt, 2010). Studies on cyber crime predominantly focus on identifying the types and prevalence of cyber crimes and often lack a theoretical base. Studies on the applicability of criminological theories to cyber crime are scarce (McQuade, 2006; Taylor, Caeti, Loper, Fritsch & Liederbach, 2006). Anyone who studies cyber crime will eventually have to look in to theories in order to find an explanation for the findings. At the same time, research is necessary to test the applicability of criminological theories to cyber crime or, to further develop theoretical approaches (e.g., Bernard, 2002; Bottoms, 2000). Lately, criminologists have been debating whether existing criminological theories are useful for the explanation of cyber crime or whether the phenomenon requires novel theoretical explanations (Jaishankar, 2008). In essence, the question is whether cyber crime constitutes a new category of criminal behaviour (Yar, 2005; Jaishankar, 2008; Holt, 2013; Yar, 2012).The Offline-Online dichotomy in relation to Cyber CrimeResearchers, politicians, and policy makers see the offline and online worlds as two separate worlds. The two are regarded as opposites, and characteristics attributed to the online world do not apply to the offline world: the transformation of time-space relationships, (perceived) anonymity, and the relative ease with which social identities can be manipulated (Yar, 2006). Of these characteristics, (perceived) anonymity is particularly connected with online disinhibition: in the online world people behave with fewer restrictions and inhibitions than in the offline world (Suler, 2004). With the arrival of the internet, a new world seems to have emerged: the online world, or cyber space. The question is, however, whether the offline-online dichotomy does justice to the complexity and interrelatedness of offline and online interactions. Subrahmanyam and Smahel (2011) call attention to the immense development in the use of online technologies since the arrival of the internet and argue that the offline and online worlds are interwoven. Research also shows that online interactions of youth occur predominantly in the context of existing relationships (Livingstone, Haddon, Gorzig, & Olafsson, 2011) and that young people increasingly see their offline and online interactions as a coherent experience (Livingstone, 2009).Researchers, politicians, and policy makers also use a dichotomy with respect to crime. Traditional crime takes place in the offline world, whereas cyber crime is committed using online technologies (Wall, 2001; Yar, 2012). There is no consistent definition of cyber crime; it is an overarching term that includes new forms of criminal behaviour - such as hacking - as well as digital forms of traditional crime (Stol, 2012).3 In addition, online deviant behaviour - although not liable to punishment - is also seen as part of cyber crime; an often cited example is cyber bullying (Yar, 2012). For example, in the Dutch Safety Monitor, one of the four investigated cyber crimes is cyber bullying (Veiligheidsmonitor 2013, p. 75). Technology has always been used in criminal activities, but the definition and categorizing of a large variety of criminal and deviant behaviours on the basis of technology is new (McGuire, 2007). The question is whether cyber crime differs fundamentally from traditional crime or whether the arrival of the internet merely offers new options for criminal behaviour (Leukfeldt, Domenie, & Stol, 2010). …