Disinfection By-products In Swimming Pool Water Research Articles

Disinfection byproducts in indoor swimming pool water: Detection and human lifetime health risk assessment

Quantification of regulated and emerging disinfection byproducts (DBPs) in swimming pool water, as well as the assessment of their lifetime health risk are limited in China. In this study, the occurrence of regulated DBPs (e.g., trihalomethanes, haloacetic acids) and emerging DBPs (e.g., haloacetonitriles, haloacetaldehydes) in indoor swimming pool water and the corresponding source water at a city in Eastern China were determined. The concentrations of DBPs in swimming pool water were 1-2 orders of magnitude higher than that in source water. Lifetime cancer and non-cancer risks of DBPs stemming from swimming pool water were also estimated. Inhalation and dermal exposure were the most significant exposure routes related to swimming pool DBP cancer and non-cancer risks. For the first time, buccal and aural exposure were considered, and were proven to be important routes of DBP exposure (accounting for 17.9%-38.9% of total risk). The cancer risks of DBPs for all swimmers were higher than 10−6 of lifetime exposure risk recommended by United States Environmental Protection Agency, and the competitive adult swimmers experienced the highest cancer risk (7.82 × 10−5). These findings provide important information and perspectives for future efforts to lower the health risks associated with exposure to DBPs in swimming pool water.

Physiologically based kinetic model for assessing intermittent chronic internal exposure to chemicals: Application for disinfection by-products in swimming pool water

Chronic exposure to disinfection by-products (DBPs) via swimming in chlorinated pools can damage the genetic material and even cause cancers in humans. To assess the intermittent chronic internal exposure to DBPs in swimming pool water, a physiologically based kinetic (PBK) modeling framework was introduced to simulate daily average internal exposure doses of DBPs that can be linked to the corresponding daily average external doses. Biotransfer factor (BTF), i.e., the steady-state concentration ratio between human bodies and swimming pool water, was applied to measure the bioaccumulation potential of chemicals in organs and tissues. The results simulated for the four selected trihalomethanes (THMs) (i.e., chloroform, bromoform, dibromochloromethane, and bromodichloromethane) showed that lungs had the highest simulated BTF among human organs and tissues, with the inhalation route showing the maximum contribution to the overall external dose. In addition, route-specific analysis indicated that chronic internal exposure doses of THMs via oral and dermal routes were negligible compared to the inhalation route. Theoretical simulation using the dissipation coefficient of THMs in the air can help optimize the design and operation of swimming pools to substantially reduce chronic internal exposure doses of THMs. The simulated results for time-dependent chloroform concentration in human blood agreed with the reported data and can be further improved once more information about the THM concentrations in breathing zones of swimmers is obtained, indicating that the proposed model can be used as a practical tool to assess intermittent chronic internal exposure of THMs in swimming pool water. In future studies, human exposure to THMs via other pathways (e.g., drinking water, showering, and bathing) can be incorporated into the proposed model to comprehensively evaluate the internal exposure doses of THMs in humans.

Magnetic covalent-organic frameworks for the simultaneous extraction of eleven emerging aromatic disinfection byproducts in water samples coupled with UHPLC–MS/MS determination

A simple method based on magnetic solid-phase extraction (MSPE) was developed for the simultaneous extraction of eleven emerging aromatic disinfection byproducts (DBPs) in water samples coupled with ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC–MS/MS) determination. A magnetic covalent-organic framework (COF) material, namely, Fe3O4 @TpBD, was facilely synthesized and fully characterized, followed by an MSPE process. Several important MSPE parameters, such as the magnetic ratio, Fe3O4 @TpBD amount and sample pH, were systematically investigated. Under optimal conditions, the limits of detection and quantification of this COF-MSPE-UHPLC–MS/MS method were as low as 0.07–1.81 ng/L and 0.24–5.99 ng/L, respectively. Good precision was obtained with relative standard deviations (RSDs) of 1.3–10.9% (intraday) and 4.3–15.9% (interday). Furthermore, the validated method was proven applicable to real water samples; for example, the recoveries were 86.8–115.1% for the secondary effluent, and several DBPs in swimming pool water were detected. Notably, the MSPE process required only 7 min, ensuring that the DBPs were relatively stable during the whole analysis process and that Fe3O4 @TpBD demonstrated excellent reusability. The COF-based MSPE method with simplicity, rapidity and efficiency provided an ideal sample pretreatment alternative to determine trace DBPs in complex matrices.

Precise exposure assessment revealed the cancer risk and disease burden caused by trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids in Shanghai indoor swimming pool water

Swimming pool disinfection byproducts (DBPs) are becoming increasingly common worldwide. Precise exposure and health risk assessment for DBPs in swimming pool water with optimized parameters for local and specific population is more urgently needed. This study aimed to determine the levels of trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs) in 16 public indoor swimming pools in Shanghai, China. Swimming habits were also investigated to obtain more accurate exposure assessment parameters. Precise exposure assessment through multiple pathways, resulting cancer risk, and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) were assessed. Results indicated that the highest total level of THMs and HAAs occurred in autumn. The surveyed swimmers 9–17 years of age had higher average daily dose (ADD) of DBPs than swimmers ≥18 years of age. The total lifetime cancer risk (LCR) attributable to THMs and HAAs exceeded 10−6, which represents a negligible risk level (NRL). The cancer risk from inhalation exposure predominantly by THMs contributed more than 99% of the total risk. Annual disease burden was 19.0 person-years attributed to exposure of DBPs in swimming pool water in Shanghai. This study provides a paradigm and strategic reference of precise exposure assessments, risk assessments, and disease burden estimation of hazards in swimming pool water for other regions.