Diseases In Lebanon Research Articles

Positive Thinking and Laughter Therapy

This manuscript investigates the efficacy of laughter therapy and positive thinking as complementary treatments for individuals with chronic diseases in Lebanon, amidst an ongoing economic crisis. Chronic diseases are a significant public health issue globally and in Lebanon, where the economic situation exacerbates healthcare challenges. Traditional biomedical treatments, while essential, are becoming increasingly costly, highlighting the need for cost-effective, alternative therapeutic approaches. Through qualitative methodology, including semi-structured interviews with a medical doctor and a clinical psychologist, and a case study of a Lebanese woman with a ruptured disk, this study explores the mental, physical, and economic impacts of laughter therapy and positive thinking. Findings suggest these therapies can enhance psychological well-being, manage symptoms, and potentially reduce healthcare costs, offering a holistic approach to chronic disease management. The study emphasizes the importance of integrating these complementary therapies into standard medical care, proposing a promising avenue for improving the lives of individuals with chronic diseases in Lebanon and beyond.

Psychosocial characteristics are associated with adherence to dietary, drugs and physical activity recommendations amongst cardiovascular disease patients in Lebanon.

Cardiovascular diseases are increasing at an alarming rate worldwide, reaching epidemic proportions in countries of the Eastern Mediterranean Region, including Lebanon. Despite the growing number of patients suffering from cardiovascular diseases in Lebanon, there is scarce data on whether cardiac patients adhere to therapeutic dietary guidelines, drug prescriptions, and physical activity recommendations and whether such adherence differs according to sociodemographic, lifestyle, or psychosocial characteristics. A cross-sectional study was conducted among 367 Lebanese adult cardiovascular disease patients admitted for hospitalization at various hospital sites in Lebanon. Electronic medical records and a multi-component questionnaire were used to collect information on patients' characteristics. Dietary assessment was performed using a culture-specific validated food frequency questionnaire, and physical activity levels were assessed using the international physical activity questionnaire (IPAQ). Mental well-being was assessed based on the validated five-item well-being index (WHO-5), and drug adherence was evaluated using the Morisky medication adherence scale (MMAS-8). The majority of the patients were males (67.8%), overweight or obese (74%), smokers (62.1%), and unemployed or retired (54.5%). Almost 35% of the patients were lonely, and nearly one fourth were at a high risk of poor mental health. Approximately 43%, 70%, and 52% of the patients were found to have poor adherence to diet, drug, and physical activity recommendations, respectively. A lower sense of mental well-being was a significant predictor of low dietary and drug adherence. Surprisingly, overweight and obesity were associated with higher odds of dietary adherence. Male gender was positively associated with physical activity while loneliness was inversely associated with physical activity. This study showed that adherence to diet, drug, and physical activity recommendations was low in this patient population and identified several non-clinical characteristics that may affect adherence. These findings highlighted the need for considering patients' psychosocial characteristics in the treatment of patients with cardiovascular diseases.

Developing an integrated model of care for vulnerable populations living with non-communicable diseases in Lebanon: an online theory of change workshop

IntroductionThe Syrian crisis, followed by a financial crisis, port explosion, and COVID-19, have put enormous strain on Lebanon’s health system. Syrian refugees and the vulnerable host population have a high burden of Non-communicable Diseases (NCD) morbidity and unmet mental health, psychosocial and rehabilitation needs. The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) recently introduced integrated NCD services within its package of primary care in Lebanon, which includes NCD primary health care, rehabilitation, and mental health and psychosocial support services. We aimed to identify relevant outcomes for people living with NCDs from refugee and host communities in northern Lebanon, as well as to define the processes needed to achieve them through an integrated model of care. Given the complexity of the health system in which the interventions are delivered, and the limited practical guidance on integration, we considered systems thinking to be the most appropriate methodological approach.MethodsA Theory of Change (ToC) workshop and follow-up meetings were held online by the ICRC, the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine and the American University of Beirut in 2021. ToC is a participatory and iterative planning process involving key stakeholders, and seeks to understand a process of change by mapping out intermediate and long-term outcomes along hypothesised causal pathways. Participants included academics, and ICRC regional, coordination, and headquarters staff.ResultsWe identified two distinct pathways to integrated NCD primary care: a multidisciplinary service pathway and a patient and family support pathway. These were interdependent and linked via an essential social worker role and a robust information system. We also defined a list of key assumptions and interventions to achieve integration, and developed a list of monitoring indicators.DiscussionToC is a useful tool to deconstruct the complexity of integrating NCD services. We highlight that integrated care rests on multidisciplinary and patient-centred approaches, which depend on a well-trained and resourced team, strong leadership, and adequate information systems. This paper provides the first theory-driven road map of implementation pathways, to help support the integration of NCD care for crises-affected populations in Lebanon and globally.

Neglected Tropical Diseases in Lebanon.

IntroductionNeglected tropical diseases (NTDs) are highly endemic and distributed within the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region, affecting an estimated 65 million people. Lebanon suffers from several NTDs as they are either endemic in the country or imported via expats residing in endemic regions, refugees, and foreign labor force. The Syrian crisis and the displacement of refugees to Lebanon have made the country the largest host of refugees per capita right after the Syrian crisis in 2011, peaking in the year of 2013. Additionally, foreign labor in Lebanon come from different countries in Africa and Asia that are endemic with certain NTDs. The Lebanese diaspora is approximately twice the number of those residing in the country and is distributed throughout the continents carrying the risk of importing new NTDs.Materials and MethodsA descriptive study about the prevalence of NTDs in Lebanon, their distribution, and factors contributing to spread was performed. The Lebanese Ministry of Public Health (LMPH) database regarding reportable transmissible diseases was reviewed for reportable NTDs between 2002 and 2020 in relation to age, gender, prevalence, and geographical distribution. The medical literature was searched using several engines looking for all reports about NTDs in Lebanon, those relevant to regions hosting Lebanese diaspora, and countries where the refugees and migrant workers came from.ResultsOnly leishmaniasis, leprosy, echinococcosis, schistosomiasis, and rabies are mandatorily reportable NTDs by the LMPH. Additionally, case reports about fasciolosis, ascaridiosis, and Dengue were reported from Lebanon. The presence of the Syrian refugees in the country affected the prevalence of leishmaniasis and rabies. The most prevalent NTD in Lebanon is cutaneous leishmaniasis. The Lebanese diaspora reside mainly in South America, Africa, and in some Arab states known to be endemic with certain NTDs.ConclusionLittle information is known about NTDs in Lebanon. The country is at an increased risk of experiencing several new NTDs due to refugee influx, foreign labor, economic crisis, and ever-growing number of Lebanese seeking work opportunities abroad. More information is needed to assess the true burden of NTDs in Lebanon and the future steps to contain and mitigate their effects.

The Sweet and Salty Dietary Face of Hypertension and Cardiovascular Disease in Lebanon.

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), an estimated 1.28 billion adults aged 30–79 years worldwide have hypertension; and every year, hypertension takes 7.6 million lives. High intakes of salt and sugar (mainly fructose from added sugars) have been linked to the etiology of hypertension, and this may be particularly true for countries undergoing the nutrition transition, such as Lebanon. Salt-induced hypertension and fructose-induced hypertension are manifested in different mechanisms, including Inflammation, aldosterone-mineralocorticoid receptor pathway, aldosterone independent mineralocorticoid receptor pathway, renin-angiotensin system (RAS), sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activity, and genetic mechanisms. This review describes the evolution of hypertension and cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) in Lebanon and aims to elucidate potential mechanisms where salt and fructose work together to induce hypertension. These mechanisms increase salt absorption, decrease salt excretion, induce endogenous fructose production, activate fructose-insulin-salt interaction, and trigger oxidative stress, thus leading to hypertension. The review also provides an up-to-date appraisal of current intake levels of salt and fructose in Lebanon and their main food contributors. It identifies ongoing salt and sugar intake reduction strategies in Lebanon while acknowledging the country’s limited scope of regulation and legislation. Finally, the review concludes with proposed public health strategies and suggestions for future research, which can reduce the intake levels of salt and fructose levels and contribute to curbing the CVD epidemic in the country.

Assessment of Industrially Produced Trans Fatty Acids in Traditional Dishes, Arabic Sweets, and Market Food Products and Its Risks on Non-communicable Diseases in Lebanon.

Industrially produced trans fatty acids (IP-TFAs) are a major dietary contributor to non-communicable diseases worldwide. To address the industrially produced trans fatty acids food sources in Lebanon, a mapping exercise was enrolled between January 2019 and April 2021 to establish a national database. The 2019 survey was a pooled data from five separate sources and had relatively 30 types of traditional dishes. In contrast, the subsequent surveys in 2020 had a sample of 35 types of Arabic sweets and 80 types of market food products. The 2021 survey covered all types of butter and margarine available in the Lebanese markets. Our findings show that about 93% of the products tested in Lebanon, between 2019 and 2021, met the World Health Organization recommendations, while about 7% exceeded the limit. The mean level of the IP-TFAs elaidic and linolelaidic acids in most traditional dishes (0.9%), Arabic sweets (0.6%), butter, and margarine (1.6%), and market foods (0.52%) were relatively low compared with other countries. Although trans fatty acids have a small impact on heart disease mortality in Lebanon, they are unquestionably significant. The persistence of food products with high quantities of trans fatty acids poses a health risk to Lebanese citizens. Fortunately, proper laws in Lebanon can easily remedy this situation.

Knowledge Evaluation of Hand Hygiene and Infectious Diseases in Lebanon

Purpose: Hand washing, also known as hand hygiene, is a simple procedure used for cleaning and cleansing hands for eliminating soil, dirt, and germs including microorganisms such are bacterial or viral particles. In the absence of water and soap, cinder can be used as an alternative method for cleaning hands. Hand hygiene is an essential part that needs to be carefully followed in the infection control protocols. With the expanding loads of Health-Care Associated Infections (HCAIs) and the increasing levels of both treatment complexity and severity of illness synchronized by multi-drug resistant (MDR) pathogen infections, health care practitioners are focusing on the basic and most essential facts of disease prevention by implementing the basic and simple cleaning measures including hand hygiene measures. According to healthcare facilities, many scientific evidences support the observation that hand hygiene or handwashing if properly implemented, can decrease and eliminate the risk factors of cross-transmission infections. Method: The data was collected using a self-administrated survey, which included 10 questions, constructed using the monkey survey website. The survey was sent by email and collected from 100 participants of different ages. Results: Our results indicated that the majority of our population under study is considered healthy, representing good educational levels. Conclusion: The majority revealed advanced knowledge and understanding about the key aspects for hand washing procedures.

Oral health in Lebanon: a pilot pathfinder survey

A pilot pathfinder survey for oral health was conducted in order to identify the level of caries and periodontal diseases in Lebanon and to produce baseline data, to be followed by a national oral health survey. The study involved 320 students, of whom 158 were 12 years old and 162 were 15 years old. The decayed, missing and filled permanent teeth (DMFT) scores for 12 and 15-year-olds were 5.0 and 7.7, respectively. Ninety-two per cent (92%) of the children aged 12 years and 96% of the children aged 15 years were affected by dental caries. The prevalence of periodontal disease among 15-year-olds was shown to be one of the highest (94.5%) in the Eastern Mediterranean Region.

The Burden of Communicable Diseases in Lebanon: Trends in the Past Decade.

The present study aims to review the main communicable diseases that experienced an upsurge in the past decade in Lebanon and to highlight the reasons behind this increase. Data of reported communicable diseases from 2010 till 2019 were obtained from the Lebanese Ministry of Public Health (LMOPH) epidemiological surveillance database. Tuberculosis, measles, mumps, leishmaniasis, and hepatitis A were the main communicable diseases that showed a sharp increase in the past 10 y. Measles outbreaks occurred in 2013 and 2018, leishmaniasis outbreak in 2013, and mumps and hepatitis A outbreaks in 2014. The highest percentages of reported diseases were from Beqaa and North governorates. The massive influx of Syrian refugees to Lebanon, together with the poor water management system, poor sanitation, deprived living conditions, and limited health-care access in rural areas might have contributed to the upsurge of communicable diseases. Although the LMOPH succeeded in containing the outbreaks, further efforts are needed to improve the identified gaps to avoid future outbreaks.

Treatment of Glomerular Diseases in Lebanon.

Glomerulonephritis (GN) is rare kidney disease that often requires treatment with immunosuppressive drugs. The choice of therapy usually relies on international guidelines. There are no data so far regarding the treatment of glomerular diseases in the eastern Mediterranean region. This study aimed to describe the most frequently treated glomerular diseases among the Lebanese population. This is a retrospective study that reviewed all patients' medication coverage claims, presented at the Lebanese Ministry of Public Health between 2014 and 2015. All patients that had kidney biopsies in their charts were included. A total of 144 patients were included: 35 children and 109 adults. Half of the children had minimal change disease treated with mycophenolate mofetil (MMF). In adults, 33% had lupus nephritis (LN) with a male to female ratio 12/24, 28.4% focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS), 14.6% membranous nephropathy (MN), and 24% other types. There was a significant difference in age among different GN (P = 0.01). MMF was the most commonly used drug in adults: 88.8% of LN cases, 51.6% in FSGS, 18.7% in MN, and 100% in immunoglobulin A nephropathy. This study showed that LN is the most frequently treated GN in Lebanon and was managed according to guidelines. MMF use was prevailing even in cases not suggested by the Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcomes. Further studies are needed to see whether these results apply to other countries.

Non-communicable diseases in Lebanon: results from World Health Organization STEPS survey 2017

ObjectivesNon-communicable diseases (NCDs) are a major global health problem. The objective of the study was to estimate the prevalence of common risk factors for NCDs in Lebanon, both among the Lebanese population and Syrian refugees, aged 18–69 years, residing in communities. Study designTwo national cross-sectional surveys using a two-stage cluster sampling design were conducted among the Lebanese and Syrian refugee adults. MethodsWe used the World Health Organization (WHO) STEPwise approach through questionnaire assessment and physical and biochemical measurements. All reported results were weighted to provide prevalence estimates at the population level. ResultsA total of 1899 Lebanese and 2134 Syrians adults participated in the survey. More than one-third of participants were current smokers at the time of the assessment, and 23% of Lebanese participants were current drinkers (almost all Syrian refugees were lifetime abstainers). Vegetable and fruit consumption was rated moderately low, in 73% and 93% of Lebanese and Syrian refugees, respectively. Many respondents did not meet WHO recommendations on physical activity. More than one-third of participants had raised blood pressure or were on antihypertensive medications. One in 10 participants had either raised blood glucose level or were currently on glycemic control medications. For all risk factors and in both samples, women consistently had lower prevalence of NCD risk factors. ConclusionsPrevalence of risk factors for NCDs is high in Lebanon, and given the recent rise in population size, the financial and social burden of NCDs will grow dramatically in the next years. The results highlight the need for interventions to address behavioral changes, including reduction in smoking, improvement of dietary habits, optimization of management of diabetes and cardiovascular diseases, and conducting continuous surveillance to monitor the trends in NCD prevalence, their risk factors, and treatments.

Disease burden of osteoporosis and other non-communicable diseases in Lebanon.

Osteoporosis is a common disease associatedwith severe debilitating consequences. The objective of this study isTo evaluate and compare disease burden from osteoporosis and other non-communicable diseases (NCDs) in Lebanon. We assessed the prevalence of osteoporosis and other NCDs, such as obesity, diabetes, hypertension, dyslipidemia, and cardiovascular diseases, based on a published population-based study of Lebanese ≥ 65years. We compared incidence rates of hip fractures and major osteoporotic fractures (MOF) (spine, hip, humerus, and forearm) to the five commonest cancers in women ≥ 50years. Rates were based on the national hip fracture and cancer registry data, provided by the Lebanese Ministry of Public Health. MOF incidence rates were derived from national hip fracture incidence rates and MOF/hip fractures incidence rate ratios from the literature. Over 70% of elderly Lebanese had osteoporosis defined by densitometric criteria or prevalent morphometric vertebral fractures. This by far exceeded the prevalence of other NCDs, such as hypertension (53%), diabetes (21%), dyslipidemia (31%), and cardiovascular diseases (30%). Morphometric vertebral fractures (grades 2 and 3) were present in 19% of women and 12% of men. The incidence rates for MOF were 1.6 times greater than those for breast cancer, and 7.4-9.9 folds higher than those for the next commonest cancers of the lungs, colon, and ovaries. Hip fracture incidence rates were lower than those of breast cancer but were 2.1-2.8 folds higher than those of the above-mentioned cancers. This first of its kind study in the Middle East demonstrates that osteoporosis is a common disease, more common than most feared NCDs. Our findings are comparable to those in western populations and justify placing osteoporosis on the top of NCDs' priority list in our country and possibly the region.

Prevalence and associations of behavioural risk factors with blood lipids profile in Lebanese adults: findings from WHO STEPwise NCD cross-sectional survey

ObjectiveTo examine associations of behavioural risk factors, namely cigarette smoking, physical activity, dietary intakes and alcohol consumption, with blood lipids profile.Design and participantsData drawn from a cross-sectional study involving participants...

C-section Delivery Is a Barrier to and Demographic-maternal-child Factors Have Mixed Effects on the Length of Exclusive Breastfeeding Under Nutrition Transition in Lebanon (P11-058-19)

ObjectivesThe study aims to: estimate the prevalence of exclusive breastfeeding in Lebanon; and examine socio-demographic, maternal, and child-related determinants associated with exclusive breastfeeding for 40 days and 6 months. MethodsIn a cross-sectional study of a nationally representative sample of 1005 Lebanese mother-child dyads, mothers of children < 5 years completed face-to-face interviews about child feeding practices, socio-demographic, maternal, and child characteristics. Exclusive breastfeeding versus mixed feeding or exclusive bottle feeding at 40 days or versus mixed feeding or bottle and solid feeding at 6 months served as the dependent variables. Multivariable logistic regression models were fitted and adjusted for significant covariates with P < 0.10 in the unadjusted analysis. For all other analyses, P < 0.05 indicated statistical significance. Results41% and 12% of the children were exclusively breastfed for 40 days and 6 months, respectively. Compared to the mixed fed or exclusively bottle fed at 40 days, the older the child at the interview the higher the odds by 1.4% per month of exclusive breastfeeding, whereas children delivered via C-section had a 26% or 53% lower odds of exclusively breastfeeding respectively. Also, compared to the exclusively bottle fed at 40 days, children in families with 3 + siblings had a 73% higher odds of exclusively breastfeeding, while children in families owning 2 + cars had a 58% lower odds of exclusively breastfeeding. Compared to the mixed fed at 6 months, children of overweight or obese mothers at the interview had 45% or 53% lower odds of exclusively breastfeeding respectively, whereas heavier children at the interview had a 10% per kg higher odds of exclusively breastfeeding. Compared to the bottle and solid fed at 6 months, children delivered via C-section and those in families owning 2 + cars had a lower odds of exclusively breastfeeding by 62% and 58% respectively. ConclusionsSocio-demographic, maternal and child characteristics influenced infant feeding practices over time in Lebanon. C-section delivery was consistently associated with a lower odds of exclusive breastfeeding for 40 days and 6 months. Reducing elective C-section delivery would enhance exclusive breastfeeding in a population undergoing social and nutrition transition. Funding SourcesLebanese National Council for Scientific Research through its support to the Associated Research Unit (ARU) for “Nutrition and Non-communicable Diseases in Lebanon”.

Contribution of next generation sequencing in pediatric practice in Lebanon. A Study on 213 cases.

BackgroundAccording to the Catalogue of Transmission Genetics in Arabs, less than half of diseases reported in Lebanese patients are mapped. In the recent years, Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) techniques have significantly improved clinical diagnosis, compared to traditional sequencing methods.MethodsA total of 213 analyses by NGS (167 by whole exome sequencing (WES) and 46 by multigene panels tests) were performed on pediatric patients across different regions of Lebanon over a period of two years (December 2015–December 2017).ResultsNeurological disorders were the most frequent referral demand for both WES and gene panels (122/213). Pathogenic, likely pathogenic, or variants of unknown significance were identified in 69.5% of the WES and panel patients combined. Over half of the patients with such variants had an autosomal recessive disorder. A definite molecular diagnosis (pathogenic or likely pathogenic variants) was achieved in 34.1% and 47.8% of the patients studied by WES and the multigene panels, respectively. Thirty‐three novel variants were found in the cases that were molecularly solved; 26 of these being identified by WES and seven by the multigene panels. In three consanguineous families, autosomal recessive inheritance of genes previously reported as showing dominant inheritance patterns were found. Biallelism was found in six cases, digenism in four cases, and one case was trigenic.ConclusionOur study thus suggests that NGS tools are valuable for an improved clinical diagnosis, and highlights that the increased adoption of such techniques will significantly further improve our understanding of the genetic basis of inherited diseases in Lebanon.

Adherence to systemic therapies for immune-mediated inflammatory diseases in Lebanon: a physicians' survey from three medical specialties.

BackgroundImmune-mediated inflammatory diseases (IMIDs) are chronic conditions that may cause tissue damage and disability, reduced quality of life and increased mortality. Various treatments have been developed for IMIDs, including immune modulators and targeted biologic agents. However, adherence remains suboptimal.MethodsAn adherence survey was used to evaluate physicians’ beliefs about adherence to medication in IMID and to evaluate if and how they manage adherence. The survey was distributed to 100 randomly selected physicians from three different specialties. Results were analyzed by four academic experts commissioned to develop an action plan to address practical and perceptual barriers to adherence, integrating it into treatment goals to maximize outcomes in IMID, thereby elevating local standards of care.ResultsEighty-two physicians participated in this study and completed the questionnaire. Most defined adherence as compliance with prescribed treatment. Although the majority of surveyed physicians (74%) did not systematically measure adherence in their practice, 54% identified adherence as a treatment goal of equal or greater importance to therapeutic endpoints. Lack of time and specialized nursing support was reported as an important barrier to measuring adherence. The expert panel identified four key areas for action: 360° education (patient–nurse–physician), patient–physician communication, patient perception and concerns, and market access/cost. An action plan was developed centered on education and awareness, enhanced benefit–risk communication, development of adherence assessment tools and promotion of patient support programs.ConclusionNonadherence to medication is a commonly underestimated problem with important consequences. A customized target-based strategy to address the root causes of non-adherence is essential in the management of chronic immune-mediated diseases.

Venereal diseases in Lebanon during the French mandate.

Venereal diseases in Lebanon during the French mandate.

Short-term relationships between emergency hospital admissions for respiratory and cardiovascular diseases and fine particulate air pollution in Beirut, Lebanon

High levels of major outdoor air pollutants have been documented in Lebanon, but their health effects remain unknown. The Beirut Air Pollution and Health Effects study aimed to determine the relationship between short-term variations in ambient concentrations of particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5) and emergency hospital admissions in the city of Beirut, and whether susceptible groups are more greatly affected. An autoregressive Poisson model was used to evaluate the association between daily concentrations of particulate matter and respiratory and cardiovascular emergency hospital admissions after controlling for confounders. All variables were measured during 1 year from January 2012 to December 2012. Relative risks of admissions for respiratory and cardiovascular diseases were calculated for an increase in 10 μg.m(-3) of pollutant concentrations. Total respiratory admissions were significantly associated with the levels of PM10 (1.012 [95% CI 1.004-1.02]) per 10 μg.m(-3) rise in daily mean pollutant concentration for PM10 and 1.016 [95% CI 1.000-1.032] for PM2.5 on the same day. With regard to susceptible groups, total respiratory admissions were associated with PM2.5 and PM10 within the same day in children (relative risk (RR), 1.013 and 1.014; 95% confidence interval, 0.985-1.042 and 1.000-1.029 for PM2.5 and PM10, respectively). Moreover, a nearly significant association was found between particles and total circulatory admissions for adults and elderly groups in the same day. These results are similar to other international studies. Therefore, air pollution control is expected to reduce the number of admissions of these diseases in Lebanon.

Outdoor air pollution and cardiovascular diseases in Lebanon: a case-control study.

Outdoor air pollution is increasingly considered as a serious threat for cardiovascular diseases (CVD). The aim of this study is to investigate the association between outdoor pollutants and cardiovascular diseases among adults in Lebanon and to examine the possible moderator effect of cigarette smoking status on this association. A multicenter case-control study was conducted between October 2011 and October 2012. Cases were hospitalized patients diagnosed with CVD by a cardiologist while the control group subjects were free of any cardiac diseases. Information on sociodemographic characteristics, tobacco consumption, self-rated global health, pollution exposure, and other risk factors was collected using a questionnaire. The results of the logistic regression revealed that living near busy highway (OR 5.04, 95% CI (4.44–12.85), P < 0.001) and close to local diesel generator (OR 4.76, 95% CI (2.07–10.91), P < 0.001) was significantly associated with CVD. The association between the CVD and exposure to outside pollutants differed by cigarette smoking status. A clear difference was noted between nonsmokers and current smokers OR 4.6, 95% CI (1.10–19.25) and OR 10.11, 95% CI (7.33–20.23), respectively. Forthcoming studies are needed to clarify the potential link between outdoor air pollution and cardiovascular diseases in Lebanon. Public health interventions must be implemented to reduce air pollution and to improve air quality.

Heart health in Lebanon and considerations for addressing the burden of cardiovascular disease

Lebanon is a small country located at the western boundary of the Middle East. Approximately 40% of health care in Lebanon is financed by the public sector. Cardiovascular diseases in Lebanon are scarcely addressed in the literature raising the need for baseline data on these health condition to be better treated. To (1) aggregate and define the burden of cardiovascular disease in Lebanon and (2) describe implications for policy, practice and research to improve health outcomes in Lebanon. An integrative review was conducted of both peer-reviewed papers and unpublished reports. CINAHL, Medline, Google Scholar and Academic Search Complete were searched along with the websites of The World Health Organization, Ministry of Public Health Lebanon and Central Intelligence Agency of Lebanon. No year limit was applied to our search. The search yielded 28 peer-reviewed articles and 15 reports. Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in Lebanon and is also the primary cause of hospital admission. A range of social, political, economic and cultural factors explain the burden of cardiovascular diseases, some of these risks are culture specific such as the arghile smoking and the high rates of familial hypercholesterolemia. Workforce shortage produced by high rates of migrating nurses also has an implication on the patients' outcomes. Conclusion: Much of the presented data are sourced from the gray literature; more research, using systematic and prospective data collection methods, are needed to inform health services planning, delivery and evaluation. Primary care needs to be enhanced to produce better outcomes for a population with high profile of cardiovascular risk factors.